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— RY- 



HENRY G. WILLIAMS. 



A BOOK 

FOR 
TEACHERS AND STUDENTS. 



S;-5J-53Sf>5Sf5«Saa'^^iS3S;-5a8SSa»?5S3SSSr^J^»aSMJ«SW®®i.^ 



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ryg^ EM Mi 

— OF— 



PSYGHOLOQY. 



A PRACTICAL BOOK 



FDR TEACHERS ^NE STEEENTS 

m HENRY o/:XAiILL-IH7VCS. t^ 

n 

SUPT. SCHOOLS, LYNCHBURG, OHIO. 



COPYRIGHTED BY THE AUTHOIJ. ISik 



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HILbSHORO, OHIO \C£f_WASIrt3^ 

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR. '7rX^VJ2l. 



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This little book does not pretend to be a treat- 
ise upon psychology, bnt an outline of principles log- 
ically arranged so that the student of psychology and 
of the theory of teaching may use it as a guide-book 
in directing his investigations upon this subject. 
Definitions and principles are not here extensively 
elucidated, but the facts of the science are plainly 
stated in their relation, to each other, with ample sug- 
gestions to the student who desires to make further 
investigations. It has been the aim of the author to 
incorporate the cardinal principles that underlie all 
empirical psychology, and to show the inseparable 
relationship existing between these principles and the 
successful practice of the teacher. As "science is 
knowledge properly classified," it has been the aim 
of the author to show the co-ordination and subordi- 
nation of every topic, suggesting also the order in 
which each should be studied. That there is a phi- 
losophy of education is no\v generally admitted, 
though not universally. The applicjition of universal 
principles to teachin^j^ is based upon such a philoso 
phy. To aid the young teacher to discover and real- 
ize that psychology is not an isolated science, the au- 
thor has appended other outlines and suggestive ar- 
ticles showing the application of psychological prin- 
ciples. That this little book may prove a real help 
to some and a source of inquiry, at least, to others, 
is the hope of 

The Author. 



A BKIKF SYNOPSIS 

If the student be not entirely familiar with this sys- 
tt-m of outlininiJ^ he will do well to study carefully the 
followiniJ hriel synopsis of the more extended out- 
line that follows. It will be noticed that thf^ lar^»er 
houres represent co-nrdination when placed one above 
the oth.r in a vertical column, and subordination 
when placed one column to the right. The expo- 
nents placed to the right and at the top of the nu- 
merals indicate the order and extent of the subdi 
visitms made. A half hour of careful study will en- 
able any student to comprehend readily the entire 
scheme, and to observe the manifest superiority ot 
the exponential numeral system above all others, 
i' Psychology. 

i^ Definition.- Psychology is the science of the 

phenomena of the soul. 
2^ Methods of Study. 

r^ Introspective, or subjective^ method. — The 

study of one's own mental activities 
2'^ Inferential, or objective, method. — The study 
of the worda and acts of others, by obst-rva- 
tion, biography, history, literature. 
3'^ Physioloi^-ical. -The study of the relations be- 
tween physical conditions and mental phe- 
nomena. 
3^ Relation of body to mind, 
i^ The nervous system. 
2^ Philosophies arising from this relation. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 



4- The Powers ot the Soul, 
r' Its general powers. 
2'^ Its individual powers, 
i^ The Intellect. 

i^ Definition. -The soul possessing the pow- 
er to know. 
2'^ Products of knowing. 
3^ Objects of knowledge. 
4^ Kinds ol knowledge. 
5'^ Powers, 

i^ Presentative 

1'^ Uef.-That intellectual power by 
which the soul attends to what is 
within or about it when objects of 
knowledge are presented. 
2^ Its forms. 

1*^ Self-Consciousness. 

2^ Sense-Perception (Authors differ.) 

1^ Definition and etymology. 
2^ Conditions of sense-perception. 
3^ Intuition 
2 Representative. 

i^ Def.-The power to represent and 

reknow objects previously known. 
2^ Classes. 

i^ Association, and the Laws of As- 
sociation. 
2^ Phantasy, or simple representation. 
3^ Memory, or real representation. 
4*^ Imagination, or ideal representa- 
tion. 
3** Thought powers. 
1''^ Definition. 
2^ Classes. 



OUTIJNES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 



i^ Conception. -The power to form general 

notions representing classes of objects. 
2^ Judgment. --The power to discern com- 
mon likeness of objects by comparison. 
3^ Reason.--'! ht^ power by which judgments 
are inferred. 
2^ The Sensibility. 

]^ Del.— 'i'he soul exercising the power to feel. 
2" Classification. 

i*^ Corporeal, or physical feelings, 
i^ Sensations. 

1^ General sensations.- Organic and vital. 
2® Special sensations. --Sight, hearing, etc. 
2^ Appetites. 

I'"* Natural -1 hose arising from some want 

in the organism. 
2^ Acquired. --Physical cravings produced 
by habit. 
2® Psychical feelings 

i' Emotions. --Instinctive, mixed and rational. 
2^ Affections.-- Benevolent, malevolent and 

defensive. 
3' Desires and Aversions. 
3^ The Will. 

i^ Def.-The soul exercising the power to do. 
2'^ Its nature. 
3'^ Its powers. 

i^ Passive wili power, as influenced by motives. 
2^ Elective will power, exercising choice and 

decision. 
3*^ Executive will power, or volition proper. 



i'^ Def. --Psychology is the science of the phenomena 
of the soul. Gordy says it is the science of men- 
tal facts. Steele says, "Psychology is the science 
of the human soul," and so say a large majority of 
authorities, but a close study ol the tacts will con- 
vince one that the science is based upon a study ol 
the phenomena or activities ot the soul. 
2^ Etymology. -From the Qx^t^ psyche, meaning soul, 

and logos, meaning discouse. 
3^ Province. -The mind and its activities. 
4 Reasons why it should be studied, 
i^ By all who desire a good education. 
r^ It develops the intellect. 

2^ It teaches the importance of a study of hu- 
man nature in order to win success in any 
avocation or profession. 
3^ It enables one to know how best to develop 

his own mind. 
4^ It is of great value to all who would influence 
their fellow-men to moral excellence and the 
best use of their faculties. 
2^ By teachers and prospective teachers. 

i^ It aids the teacher in strivintr for that which 

is best within himself. 
2^ It enables him to teach scientifically. 
3^ With the mind the teacher deals, concerning 

mind he should know. 
4^ "On earth there is nothing great but man, and 
in man there is nothing great but mind." 



8 OUTLINI-.S OF PSYCIlOLOCiY. 

5^ It tnables the teacher to direct with a purpose 
and to a definite end the early deveUjpment of 
the child mind. 
5/ The soul. 

i^ Del.- I he soul is that part ot man's beinj^ which 

feels, knows, and wills. 
2'^ Synonyms. -Mind, ego. self, spirit, etc. 1 he 
t^rm mind, is used as almost identical with the 
term suul, yet there should be a difference in 
their application. Ego means the self as distin- 
guished from all material creation — the individ- 
ual soul ; I, myself. I'he ego is the subjective 
as distinguished trom the objective. Other syn- 
onyms are conscious subject, human conscious- 
ness, and spirit. 
3^ Distinction between soul and spirit. -Hewett 
makes this distinction : The word soul, includes 
in its meaning, such of the lower psychical pow- 
ers as the nobl'-r brutes possess in some degree 
in common with man. The spiritual part ^i 
man's psychical nature includes personality, 
morality, and responsibility, while the soul-attri- 
butes possessed by the higher orders ot the 
lower animals do not included reason, conscience, 
and a free will, hence no personality, morality, 
and responsibility. 
4^ The powers or faculties exercised by the soul.- 
Sensibility, inlTellect, and will. 

i^ This classification was first made by Sir Wil- 
liam Hamilton, about 1840. 
2^ Divisions. 

i^ Sensibility-The power of the soul to feel, 
includes physical as well as psychical ieel- 
ings, because the former can only be recog- 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 



nized by the conscious subject, the soul. 
2' Intellect. -i'he power ot the soul to know. 
3^ Will. -The power ol the soul to do or exe- 
.:ute. 
Psychology proper. ' • 

i^ Classification. 

1^ Empirical psychology. -Thai: which restricts it- 
self to observation and experience, and does 
not speculate upon the nature of the princi- 
ples involved. All psychology proper is em- 
pirical, and to this branch of the subject 
teachers should devote particular attention. 
2^ Rational psychology. -That which deals with 
the nature of the soul and deduces philosoph- 
ies from the underlying . principles discovered 
in the study of phenomena. Empirical psy- 
chology gives but greater prominence to the 
phenomena oi the soul with the conditions 
and laws of the same, while rational psychol- 
ogy gives prominence to the faculties implied 
by these phenomena. The terms cognition, 
ieeling, and volition apply directly to the first, 
while the terms intellect, sensibility, and will 
are more prop-.-rly used in the classification of 
the second. 
2'^ Methods of study. 

r^ The study of self, or by means of conscious- 
ness, 
i^ The method. 

i" We know that we think, feel, and will. 
2' We know that we see, hear, smell, taste, 

and touch. 
3^ We know that we perceive, imai^ine, re- 
member, judge^ and reason. 



lO OUTLINKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

2^ Consciousness.-- The mind knowin^,^ itself 
and its own activities and statrs. 

3^ Causes. -We can study the causes that ex- 
cite certain feeHngs in the mind. Psychi^.a! 
feelings are here referred to. 

4^ Circumstances. -We can observe under what 
circumstances we teel pain and pleasure, joy 
and sorrow, indignation and pity, etc. 

5^ Difficulties encountered by this method. -- 
This method of introspection, as it is call- 
ed, is at first quite difficult, but becomes 
easier by practice. A mental act of any kind 
is a fleeting phenomenon, and while we at- 
tempt to concentrate our thoughts upon any 
mental act it. becomes a past act. However, 
memory comes to our assistance and calls 
up our past mental phenomena, thus in part 
obviating the difficulty 

6"* Extent of this method.-- We can thus study 
only isolated mental facts, hence the method 
gives us knowledge only of individual tacts. 
1 o obtain a law ot mental activity we 
must connect these individual facts : laws 
are the results ol inference. It can thus be 
seen that we use also, to a slight extent, 
the inferential method in the study of our 
own minds. 
2^ Ihe study by observation. 

i"* Application — While the first method m.ay be 
called the introspective, or subjective, the 
study oi the mind by observation may be 
called the inferential, or objective, method. 

2^ Advantage. -We have, in the school room 
and out of it, all the steps in the child's pro- 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. II 



gress in development, together with the 
real and apparent influences and environ- 
menls. 

3^ Difficulty. --One can not study a sin^^^le mind 
long enough < r under a sufficient variety of 
circumstances to arrive at definite cor,clu- 
sions. I he same child is not under the di- 
rect observation of a teacher long enough 
tor him to make a series of observations 
that shall discover tor him a law of men'al 
growth. The prt-sent insecure ten i. re of 
teachers only aggravates this difficulty. 

4^ Relation to introspective methods. --In the 
study and collection of individual lacts, you 
can use the introspective method without 
the interential, but the latter can not be used 
at all without the former, When we make 
an intert-nce it is because we know by intro- 
spection that we have certain mental activi- 
ties when certain circumstances c-xist. 

5^ How the method is used. 

i^ Ihrough a study of the words and acts 

of others. 
2'^ By observation we may trace the growth 
ot a child's mind. 

3^ We may learn the traits, motives, and be- 
liefs of men trom a study of the auxiliarv 
branches: 

i^ Biology, the science ot life. 
2*^ Sociology, the science of society. 
3^ Biography, the history or narrative of 

an individual life. 
4^ Anthropology, the science which treats 



12 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY 

of man in his relation to the animal 
kingdom. 
5^ Physiology, the science which treats of 
the functions of man's individual organ- 
ism. 
6'' History, when studied in the light of 

, cause and effect. 
7*^ Literature, when studied in the light oi 
the history of the language and the 
growth ol thought. 
3^ The study of psychology from books. 

i"* It is a necessary method, but should not be 

be used exclusively. 
2^* Difficulty --The different nomenclatures 
used by different authors tend to confound 
the learner. 
3'' Importance.— Teachers must study psychol- 
ogy from books if they expect to learn the 
science. Only in this way can they profit 
by the experience and wisdom of those who 
have given much time to the study. It is 
necessary to study books on this subject in 
order to know the generalizations that have 
been made as the results of centuries of ob- 
servation, and to learn tbe scientific terms 
that have been thus evolved. 
3'^ Psychology as a science. --Inductive, because its 
laws are founded upon and forn-^ulated from the 
observation of related mental activities. 
4^ Relation of the soul to the body; of the psychic- 
al to the physical. 

i^ Reason for his relation. --As there can be no 
mental activity, without a living organism sup 
plied with a nervous system, the study .of 



OUTLINES UF PSYCHOLOGY. 



Psycholoy^y is necessarily closely connected 
wiih that of physiology. 
2^ What the relation is-- Neither internal or ex- 
ternal observation will reveal the exact rela- 
tion between soul and body. Reflection, con- 
sciousness, and intuition are alike unable to 
solve the uroblem. The doctrine nl theircon- 
nection is simply theoretical and as such does 
not belong to psychology. It will be of in- 
terest to the student, however, to sketch an 
outline of the 
3® Theories or philosophies arising from the rela- 
tion of the souL and body. - Monism and 
Dualism. 
1^ Monism. 

r^ Del.— The assumption that the soul and 
body are each material, and of one sub 
stance. 
2^ Etymology— From the Greek word nionos, 

meaning one. 
3'^ Forms of monism. -Materialism, Idealism, 
and Agnosticism, 
i*^ Materialism. 

i^ Del. --The doctrine that denies the 
existence of material substances and 
regards the soul as a function of 
matter in motion. 
2" Example of materialists.-- Alexander 
Bain, a Scotch philosopher, 1818- 1877, 
who called the body a double-faced 
unity with mind on one side and 
matter on the other. 
2" Idealism 



^ 



14 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

i^ Def--The doctrine that admits no ot'ier 
reality than ideas, regarding all known ob- 
jects as the products of psychical action, 
and the soul as immaterial. 
2^ Idealists--George Berkeley, Irish metaphy- 
sician, 1684-1753, was probably the founder 
of idealism. John Stuart Mill. English 
poltical economist. 1806- 1 873, was an ide- 
alist. I"le defined mind as a seri s oi leet- 
inj^s an<l matter as 'a permanent possibility 
of sensations." 
\^ A:^nosticism. 

i'^ Def.— The doctrine that the existence ol a 
pi-rsonal deity can neitht-r be asserted nor 
denied, neither proved nor dispro'vcd, 
owinL^ to the necessary limits to the human 
mind. 
2^ Agnostic.-- 1 lerbert Spencer, ling, philoso- 
pher born 1820, who reters the phenomena 
of both mind and matier to a substance 
which is both unknown and uuKnowable. 
He rejects all evidence that is not positive 
and conclusive. 
'^Dualism (i^ Monism.) 

1^ Def,- The doctrine that man is constituted oi two 
ori inal and indep'mdent elements, matter and 
spirit. 
2^ Etymology,— From the Latin duo, meanin;^ two. 
3" Forms. --Mysticism and Dualistic Realism 

i' Mysticism.— The doctrine ot pre-established 
harmony in all things and the direct commu- 
nication of the soul with the divine spirit. The 
French philosopher, Nicholas Malebranche, 
J 638-1 7 15, and the (ierman philosopher, jG. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCtlOLOGY. 1 5 



VV. Liebnitz, 1646-1716, were dualists. It 
seems that dualists themselves, although be- 
lieviiiL!:- the doctriri'/ in the main as stated 
above, could never ay;ree as to the extent ol 
the soul's vision in comprehending the divine 
spirit. 
2** Dualistic Realism. 

1' Def.-- The belief in the clear apprehension of 
the soul by sell-consciousness and a knowledge 
of the body through sense-perception. 
2' Its validity.— This theory or philosophy adheres 
to the facts and rejects arbitrary hypotheses. 
It does not pretend to unravel all the mysteries 
of soul, determine its locus, or disblieve all 
things because it can not see all things. It is 
ready to confess ignorance when there are no 
means for further knowledge. 
3" Believers in dualistic realism. --Since the time 
of Thomas Ried. a Scotch philosopher, 1710- 
1796, this doctrine has been the leading one 
held by the gre it body of advanced thirikers 
of Europe and America. James McCosh, an 
American philosopher of Scotch birth, 181 1 — , 
is probably the greatest leader in this philoso- 
phy, of the nineteenth century. It would be 
well, for those who have the inclination, to 
secure the works of the authors mentioned in 
this outline of the various philosophies ol the 
soul, and study their bearing upon the devel- 
opment of thought in this advanced age. 
4^ The nervous system as the intermediate factor in 
all sensations. (See 3^ and 4^ to observe the con- 
nection of this topic.) 



l6 OUTLINKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

i^ The processes in every complete sensation. 

i^ The external excitant, or physical excitant, as it 
is sometimes culled. It is that which when pre- 
sented to the nervous system under proper con- 
ditions will produce a physical sensation. To 
illustrate: A bright light placed before the eyes 
will produce a certain change in the optic nerve, 
which is a physical sensation. The light is the 
external excitant. 
2° The sensorium, or that part of the nervous sys- 
tem engaged in conveying sensation. 
3^ The mental or psychical excitement, sometimes 
called the sensorial excitement. It is probably 
better to say that the sensorial excitement is in 
the sensory nerves and that part of the brain 
used in receiving sensations while the psychical 
excitement is the sensation proper and is in the 
soul. This distinction shows that there are 
physical or corporeal sensations, and psychical 
sensations. By those who use unscientific 
speech the former is meant when sensation is re- 
ierred to. 
2^ Analysis ot the nervous system, 
i^ Cerebro-spinal system. 

i" Def-That part of the nervous system compris- 
ed in the brain, spinal cord, their nerves, and 
the ganglia belonging to them, 
2^ Parts. 

1^ The Brain, or encephalon. 

i*^ Weight. -In the male adult, 49 to 50 oz. ; 

in the temale adult, 44 to 45 oz. 
2*^ Parts. 

i^ Cerebrum.-The portion of the brain oc- 
cupying the top and front part of the 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. \J 

cranium, (jray matter to the depth of 
about 1-8 of an inch c(3vers the (juter 
part, constituting- the cortex ol the cer- 
ebrum. Beneath it is tlu: white matter 
consisting- ot nerve-fibers. It is esti- 
mated that the number of nerve-cells in 
the cerebrum alone is 900,000,000, 
while the number of fibers is probably 
about 4,500,000,000. The cerebrum is 
the seat of intelligence, and has control 
of all the voluntary movei-nents of the 
body. (See outline below.) 
2^ Cerebellum.-Called the "little brain," it is situated 
in the posterior part of the cranium beneath the 
cerebrum or brain proper, and is composed of gray 
and white matter in about the same proportions 
and relations as in the cerebrum, but is only about 
1-8 as large. Its function is not definitely known, 
but it is generally believed that the cerebellum has 
a co-ordinating power with the cerebrum in con- 
trolling voluntary muscular movements. As the 
cerebrum is the seat of thought it can not be doubt- 
ed that all voluntary muscular movements must be 
under the control of the cerebrum, so far as the will 
is concerned, but it is believed that the will of the 
cerebrum is carried out by the cerebellum. But 
the fact that the cerebrum may sometimes carry 
out these acts alone in case of an injury to the 
cerebellum, leads scientific men to conclude that 
the exact function of the latter is not yet definitely 
known. 
3*^ Medulla Oblongata-This is really an enlarged por- 
tion of the spinal cord, situated just above the 
foramen magnum at the base of the skull. It is 



1 8 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

about one inch and a quarter long by three- 
quarters of an inch wide, and weighs about 
one ounce. Its weight is a Httle greater in 
females than in males. Its functions are to 
control wholly or in part the actions ot the 
heart, lungs, and blood-vessels, and all vital 
actions. Although respiration is to some ex- 
tent under the control of the will, yet under 
ordinary circumstances we breathe by reflex 
action. 
3*^ Intellectual power and size of brain, 

i^ The rule. -Great intellectual power is usually 
associated with a large brain, especially a large 
cerebrum. Examples are Abercromba, Cuvier, 
Webster, Disraeli, and others. 
2^ The exceptions. 

i'** The weight of the brain is relatively great- 
er at birth and in childhood than in youth or 
manhood and womanhood. 
2^** A few cases of imbecilii y have been noticed 
where the brain was very heavy, usually 
abnormally heavy. 
2' Nerves of the brain-system. (1^ The brain.) 

r"^ Sensory, -Those that carry sensations to the 
brain. They are also called afferent nerv^es, be 
cause of the direction in which they c.irry sensa- 
tion. The term sensation is here used in its 
physical srnse, as used in physiology. 
2*^ Motor. -Those that carry sensation from the 
brain, They are also called efferent nerves. 
Sensory nerves are sometimes called centripetal 
nerves, because center-seeking, and motor nerves 
for the similar reason are called centrifugal 
nerves. As their names indicate, the former are 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 1 9 



nerves of sensation proper, while the latter 
are nerves oi motion 
3' i he spinal cord. ( (' Brain, 2' Nerves.) 

1''' Of what it consists -A gray axis surrouiided 
by white maiter and investing" membranes, 
occupyini.^ the spinal canal. Its length is 
about eighteen inches; weight, one and a 
half ounces. 
2^ Its functions. --I1 acts as a conductor to and 
from the brain, and by reflex action controls 
the involuntary movements of the limbs and 
exerts a certain control over the organs ol 
digestion, respiration, and circulation. 
2'^ Sympathetic system. --(r' Cerebro-spinal system.) 
i*^ (Jf what it consists. --A double chain of ganglia 
situated on either side ol the spinal cord and 
connected with the nerves of the spinal cord and 
the nerves of the brain by means ol transverse 
connecting nerves. These panulia are also con- 
nected with the organs of the chest and abdomen. 
2^ Function. --To regulate the processes of organic 
life. 
3'' The Special Senses in their relation to psychology. 
i'' Sense ol Smell. 

i^ The nerve of smell.- -Olfactory, which arises 
from the anterior portion ol the base of the 
cerebrum and is spread out upon the surface 
of the turbinated bones. It is peculiar in that 
it is the only nerve in the body known to con- 
tain gray matter in its axis 
2' The excitant. --'Ihe floating particles of odor- 
ous matter coming in contact with the delicate 
Schneiderian membrane which invests the 
nostrils. 



20 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY 

3^ The result.-- The nerve is irritated and the sen- 
sorial excitement is the sensation ol smell. 
2" Sense of 1 aste. 

1^ ihe nerves of taste. 

i*^ The inferior branch of the trifacial nerve/also 
called the gustatory nerve, which supplies the 
front half of the tongue. 
2^ The glosso-pharyngeal, so-called because dis- 
tributed to both tongue and throat. 
2^ The excitant.-Matter in a state of solution 

passing over the tongue. 
3^ The result or sensorial excitement.-The sensa- 
tions of flavors and tastes. 
4' Peculiarities. 

i^ Modifications of the sense of taste.— Sweetness 
and sourness, detected in particular by the 
gustatory nerve; and saltness and bitterness, 
detected by the glosso-pharyngeal. Potas- 
sium chlorde, sodium sulphate, and other sub 
stances are exceptions. 
2^ Sensations oi touch detected by the tongue. - 
Roughness, smoothness, oillness, pungency, 
starchiness, etc. 
3^ Sensations of smell apparently detected by the 
tongue.- In the case of articles having an aroma 
the smell seems closely allied with the taste, 
but by closing the nostrils while tasting such 
substances the deception will be observed, 
3*^ Sense of Hearing. 

i^ The nerve. --The auditory nerve, which arises 
from the medulla oblongata and supplies the in- 
ternal ear. 
2'^ The excitant. --The vibrations of the media in 
which the sensorial end-plates of the auditory 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2 1 



nerves are situated, caused by the vibratiuns of 
the external air, which have been induced by 
the sudden change in position ol some material 
object. 
3' The result. --The sensorial excitement in this 
case results in a knowledge ol the many varieties 
ot sound. 
4*^ Sense of Sight. 

i'^ The nerve. -The optic nerve, which has its origin 
in the anterior portions of the cerebrum and 
whose sensorial endplates terminate in the retina. 
The olfactory and the optic are the only cranial 
nerves arising directly from the cerebrum. 
2' The excitant. --The waves of light. For a clear 
discussion of the cause of light and how it is 
communicated, the student is referred to any 
good work on physics, 
■^ The result. 

i^ Primarily considered^ it gives us a knovvledge 

of color and form. 
2^ When assisted by touch, hearing, an I experi- 
ence it gives us notions ol size, distance, 
roughness, smoothness, and many other quali- 
ties of objects. This is probably the most 
remarkable and wonderful of the senses when 
considered Irom rt psychological standpoint. 
5*^ The Sense of Touch. 

i^ Nerves of touch. --They have no special names, 
although sometimes called tactile nerves. They 
belong to the spinal cord, hence, to the cerebro- 
spinal system. They end in peculiar sensorial 
end-plates in the cutis and other investing 
membranes. 



22 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

2^ I'he excitant. --Properly, touch involves 
pressure or actual contact oi objects with 
portions ol the body supplied with these 
nerves, the fingers bein^ most sensitive 
to touch. The tip of the tongue, how- 
ever^ possesses this power to a very high 
degree. 
3' The result. --The information thus derived 
is probably the most extensive and di- 
verse of all we gather by sense-perception. 
4^ A g(Mieral observation. -It will be noticed 
that in this outline of the special senses 
three things were in each case considered: 
the excitant, the part of the sensorium. par- 
ticularly affected, and the sensorial excite- 
ment, or the sensation proper. These are 
the three necessary antecedents ot sense- 
perception 
5''' Conclusion of this topic. --It will now be 
noticed that all the outline from 4^, page 
12, to this point has dealt with the topic, 
"I he relation of the soul and body." We 
now take up the study of the powers ot the 
soul, but shall have irequent need to think 
of this relation of the soul, that which reall)- 
knows, feels, and vi^ills, to the body, that of 
which we are so prone to think as knowing, 
teeling, and willing. 
5^ Ihe powers of the soul. 

1^ Its General Powers. -Consciousness, Attention, 
and Conception. 

i^ Def.--Those powers of the soul distinguished 
from the faculties, not co-ordinate with them, 
but connected with them all. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 23 



2"' General functions. --They can not act separately 
from each other nor from some one or more ot the 
inteiiectual faculties. 
3^ Distinction. --A faculty is a power under the con- 
trol of the will, haviny;- some particular work of its 
own to do. -Kewett. 
4^ Analysis. 

i'' Consciousness. See"Self-Consciousness, "below 
i*^ Del.- -Consciousness is tht- general power of 
the soul by which it knows its own acts and 
states and itself as the knower. 
2^ Authors compared. --Consciousness can not be 
defined. -Hill. Consciousness is the power 
the mind has to know its own acts and states, 
and to know them as belonging to the Ego.— 
Hewett. Consciousness is the immediate 
knowledge the soul has of its own phenijmena. 
--Schuyler. Consciousness is the inner per- 
ception, the perception ol our thoughts and 
feelings. --Putnam. Consciousness is the 
power of the mind by which it knows its own 
acts and states.- Baker. 
3'^ Use of the term. -Denotes both an act and the 

power to which the act is referred. 
4" Etymology. -L. con and scio, indicating that 
along with knowing an object, I know also the 
knowing. 
5*^ Objects of Consciousness." fhey are all 
psychical phenomena, actual and present. 
V Distinction. 

i'^ Consciousness is immediate knowledge. 
2^ Knowledge ot external objects is medi- 
ate. 
2^ Classes of objects of consciousness. 



24 (^UTLINKS OF PSYCIiOLOCiY. 

i*^ The Ego.-- We are conscious of the Ego as 
thinkintr, feelino- and willinof'.--Hewett. We 
are not conscious of the soul, nor ol the soul 
as knovviny;, f(^elinL:, and willing, but ol the 
knowing, feeling, and willing. --Schuyler, with 
whom we agree on this point. 
2® Acts or states. --We may be conscious of the 
activity ot the mind in perceivin;^, remember- 
ir.ii, etc 
3*^ All psychical phenomena.-- The soul is con- 
scious of all its phenomena. The realization 
of these phenomena is the state of conscious- 
ness. 
4* The non-Ego. --Sir William Hamilton held that 
we may be conscious of the non-Ego. which is 
generally denied. 
5^ Products.-- We may be conscious of our 
thougrhts and Ifelingrs, which are th:- results nf 
psychical action. 
6^ As to time ot consciousness --Consciousness can 
neither be before nor after a phenomenon. We 
are conscious ot a phenomenon only at the instant 
of its occurrence. We are not conscious ot things 
we remember, but of the concepts of them, which 
must be immediately before the mind. We may 
also bt; conscious ot a present concept of that 
which is future^. 
7*^ To which special faculty of the soul most closely 
connected. — It' is itself an act ot the intellect, 
though implied by all psychical phenomena, cog- 
nitions, feelings, and volitions. 
8*^ Kinds of Consciousness.— Schuyler 

i^ Natural consciousness. --Immediate knowledge of 
all three class- s of psychical phenomena. 



-OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2$ 

.2^ Ethical, --Reflection applied to moral states. 

3^ Abnormal. -As exhibited by persons who im- 
agine others are noticing their awkwardness, 
dress, etc.. 

i*^ Due to morbid sensitiveness --Hewett. 
2^ To a real or supposed feeble condition of body. 
3^ I o undue pride or self-love. 
4*^ To a knowledge of unworthiness. 
9^ Degrees of consciousness. 

i^ Of certain organic phenomena, such as appetites, 
we are scarcely conscious. 

2' The stronger the cause which induces psychical 
activity the stronger the degree of consciousness 
lo*^ (reneral conditions ot consciousness. 

i^ A living subject who is conscious. 

2^ A faculty of consciousness. 

2,'' A psychical phenomenon, the only kind of ob 
jects of consciousness. 
1 1^ Relation of Consciousness and Attention. 

i^ By attention any of the degrees of consciousness 
may arise into the region of clear consciousness, 
—Baker. 

2^ Attention is often spontaneous. In this it is 
like consciousness, and may be termed "volun- 
tary consciousness." 
12^ Relation of consciousness and cerebration 

i^ Unconscious mental activity. -Strictly speaking, 
there can be no unconscious mental activity, but 
many cases have been cited where there seems 
to have been mental activity without conscious- 
ness. 

2^ Unconscious cerebration. -In such cases ot ap- 
parent mental activity, it is not improbable that 
brain activity may be unaccompanied by mental 



26 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

activity. I^)rain activity may become reflex, 
like muscular habits. It is nor improbable 
that mental activity may be started in a cer- 
tain direction and become so intense that it 
will continue unconsciously to work in ihat 
line until the result is accomplished, when 
the cerebration becomes conscious again. 
13" Cultivation. -Consciousness can not be culti- 
vated, as it is not under the control of the will. 
2'' Attention, (i^ Consciousness.) 

1*^ Etymology. -L. ad, meaning toward, and te^t- 

dere, to stretch. 

2*^ Def.-It is the concentration of consciousness 

in one direction and upon one object. 
3*^ Authors compared. -The self-governing 'intel- 
ligence applying itself to what it wills. --Com- 
payre. The, power the mind has to bring all 
its forces to bear on one thing.-- Hewett. The 
voluntary directing of the energy of the mind 
toward an object or an act.— Steele. The 
power of exercising active self-direction. ■- 
White. Attention is conscious or unconscious , 
— Day. Although under the control of the 
will, it produces no result alone, and of itself.-- 
Hewett. It is not a special intellectual 
taculty.-Hill. The voluntary determination of 
the intelligence to objects ol knowledge. 
4^ How the term is applied. 

1^ As applied to external objects it is known 
as observation, which includes both stages 
of cognition, perception and judgment. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2'] 



2' As applied to subjects ot our own consciousness 
it m-iy be desi^trnated reflection, whicii includes 
intuition and judgment. For an explanation ot 
these terms, see outline. 
5** Classes of attention.-- Voluntary and involuntary. 
i^ Voluntary. 

1*^ Etymology --From L. vulens, the will. 
2^ Def.-'rhe active direction of the mind toward 
any object of knowledge, either external ob- 
jects or objects of consciousness. 
3^ Elements of voluntary attention. 

i^ The mind must have had experience in 

order to perceive relations. 
2^ The mind must have sufficient development 
to interpret that experience. 
4^ Age at which first experienced by the child — 

About 3 to 6 months. --Gordy. 
5*^ Functions. 

i^ Development of interest in things not nat- 
urally attractive to us, but beneficial to us. 
2^ Development of continous attention, con- 
centration, that the mind may direct its own 
energies. 
2^ Involuntary. 

i^ Etymology. ~-L. in, within, and volens. 
2^ Def. -That attention which results from the 
influence exerted upon the mind by the thing- 
attended to, in and of itself 
3*^ Also called non-voluntary. 
4^ Causes in children --Gordy. 

i^ The quality of sensations or their character 

as pleasurable or painful. 
2^ 1 he intensity of the sensation. 
6^ Knowledge depending on attention. 



2S OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY 

i' The objectG of knowledge to which attention 
may be directed inchide everything, external 
objects and objects of consciousness, upon which 
mental force may be made to bear. 
2^ Gordy says what we are conscious ot depends 
upon aitention, as does also what we perceive^ 
remember, recollect,, believe, ieel, and will. 
7*^ Relation of attention to n^ental activity, --When 
our brain activities are thoroughly habitual there 
is no attention, but it is doubtlul if there is any- 
mental activiiy in such cases. Authors generally 
admit that there can be no mental activity without 
attention. Can we attend to more than one thing 
at a time? "In a case of perfect attention the 
mind's forces are all brought to bear upon one 
thing, but experience shows that in imperfect at- 
tention the mental force is divided/'--Hewett. It 
is said th it we could reach no conclusion in com- 
paring two things unless the mind have both be- 
fore it at once. But we believe it possible for the 
attention to vibrate from one to the other in rapid 
succession. Try it in close analysis or comparison, 
and see if the attention must not be wholly upon 
the one while it is lorming concepts of it with which 
to compare the concepts formed of the other. Sir 
William Hamilton says, however, that the mind 
can attend to as many as six things at once, but 
that the intensity is weakened in proportion to the 
number of objects before the mind. See Steele, 
Schuyler, Hewett, Gordy, and Sully. 
8^ Laws of attention. 

i" Especially with children, whatever is curious, 
odd, bright^ noisy^ etc., attract the attention and 
develop it. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 29 

2' Whatever occasions strong emotions of pleasure 
or oi pain claims the attention. 

3' The degree oi the attention will .vary with the 
exciting cause, or stimulus. 

4' Variety oi related objects attract the attention. 

5^ Attention is more likely to be aroused ii the ob- 
ject accords with one's tastes and tendencies. •- 
Baker. 

6' Weber's Law. --In order that a sensation may 
increase in quantity in arithmetical progression, 
the stimulus must increase m geometrical pro- 
gression, which expresses a general truth. 
9^ Conditions unfavorable to attention. 

i^ Too frequent repetition. 

2} Abrupt or rapid transition Irom one subject to 
another. 

3^ Prolonging an effort to weariness. 

4^ External influences that are more exciting 
stimuli than those designed to be kept before 
the mind. 

5^^ Mental agitation from lear, etc. 

6' Tasks too difficult to comprehend. 

f 111 health causing bodily pain. 
10*^ iVlotives proper to employ to secure it. 

i'^ The lear ol pain, in exceptional cases. 

'2} The love ot praise. 1 o be used with caution. 

3^ The hope of future good. 

4^ The desire to excel in merit. 

5^ The motives of duty: do the right because it is 
right. 

G All proper incentives to study. The Royal 
Seven —Dr. White. 
i^ A desire for standing or rank. 



30 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

2*^ A desire for the approbation of equals and 

ol superiors. 
3*^ A desire for activity and power. 
4^ A desire for knowledge. 
5** The hope of future good. 
6^ A sense of honor. 
7® A sriise of duty. 
1 1" Growth of attention. 

i^ The early life of a child is almost a continual 
exercise of this power, the stimuli being pre- 
sented through the senses, especially ol sight, 
touch, and hearing. 

2' Cultivation. -As the attention is under the 
control of the will it can be cultivated. -This 
may be done by a persistent exercise of the 
will power over the mind's movements. Like 

. the law of habit, it grows by repetition under 
proper circumstances, 

3'^ Results of concentrated and prolonged effort. 
--Genius is simply a persistent, continuous at- 
tention. Without it the greatest natural gen- 
ius is doomed to lailure. With it, any student 
can command success. 
3'^ Conception. See Consciousness, Attention. 

i*^ Etymology. -From L. con, meaning with, and 

capere, to take, signifying a taking or grasping 

together. 
2^ Varied use of the term. 

i' Formerly used to denote the power, the pro- 
cess, and the product of forming general ideas. 

2"' Recent authors have chosen concept to denote 
the product of conception. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY, 3 1 

3*^ Def.-Conception is the process of forming a gen- 
eral notion, or idea through the operation ot anal- 
ysis, abstraction, and generaHzation. 
4*^ Authors compared.-- That process of elaboration 
by which the intellect forms general notions of 
classes ol objects having common attributes. -- 
Schuyler. The process of forming abstract or 
general ideas. --Hill. The process ol forming a 
general notion of a class of similar objects.- Baker. 
The power by which we see with the mind's eye.-- 
Hewett. The whole mental activity by which the 
complex precess of analysis, abstraction, and gen- 
eralization is performed. - Putnam. 
5*^ Processes, or steps of conception, 

i" Presentation.— That step in the formation of ideas 
which consists in presenting the objects of 
knowledge through sense-preception. Some 
call this step observation. 
2^ Comparison -That step by which objects of 
knowledge are presented to the mind by noting 
their points of similarity. 
3' Abstraction. -F"rom L. ad, off or from, and tra- 
here, to draw. That process by which we "draw 
off" for iurther attention, the common character- 
istics ot the objects examined. 
4" Generalization. --L. gemts, meaning kind. That 
process in conception by which we select the com- 
mon attributes found in an entire class of objects. 
It embraces synthetic specificaLion, or the form- 
ation of species from individuals ; and generifica- 
tion, or the formation of genera from species. 
5^ Denomination. 



32 OUTLINKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

i'^ Uef.-That step by which we assign names to 
the classes tormed by generalization, and these 
classes, with the concepts of them, become em- 
bodied in verbal signs. 
2^ What it embraces: Nomenclature. -The col- 
lection of the names applied to the classes ot 
objects grouped in a science. Terminology.- 
The collection of the names of these parts and 
properties of individual objects belonging to a 
science. (Condensed from Schuyler.) 
6'* Relation of conception to classification. 

i^ Classification is forming groups oi objects hav- 
ing common qualities, 
2' While conception is forming a general notion of 
the class of such objects. 
7" What the term conception embraces. 

1^ It is not a faculty. -It is a general power of the 
soul, largely under control of the will, but it ac- 
companies each of the mental powers and pro- 
duces no specific result alone. 
2^ The act of the mind and the product of this act. 
3^ Concepts. 

i^ Def.— A concept is a combination of common 
attributes into a single term, but it is a men- 
tal product, not a verbal or written expression. 
2^ Classes. 

i^ Simple concepts. -The simple mental prod- 
ucts of the representative power ; see im- 
ages and ideas. 
2^ General concepts. -The mental notions of a 
class of objects. The simplest act of think- 
ing is the forming of the general concept or 
notion.— White. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. ^^ 

3*^ Other terms. --Simple concepts are called in- 
dividual concepts and general concepts are 
called logical 
4^ Difference between them. --The former rep- 
resent individual things or objects, while the 
latter represent "a bundle ot attributes that 
belong to every one of a class to which the 
term may be applied " 
8*^ Cultivation ot conception. 

i^ Why it may be done. --Because the will has al- 
most exclusive control over our conceptions. 
2' How it m.ay be done.--Hewett. 

i*^ Avoid "parrot" recitations, for in them you 
have words without their accompanying con- 
cepts. 
2^ Avoid mechanical reading and meaningless 

mathematical work 
3® Induce accurate perceptions of objects studied 
through the senses ; hence, cultivate sense- 
perception. 
9" Relation of conception to education. 

i^ It is essential to scientific knowledge. --Not an 
accumulation ot isolated facts, but ot facts group- 
ed in classes according to known laws and known 
by a suitable nomenclature. 
2^ Steps of conception necessary to a scientific 
knowledge. -Abstraction and generalization in 
particular. 
3' Conception is developed by linguistic study. 
\^ Language is made up largely of general terms, 

hence conception is developed. 
2^ It calls forth the habit of comparing. 
4^ It affords a criterion for the order of study. In 



34 ' OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

the g^rowth of the mind there are three essen- 
tial processess : 
i*^ Apprehension of facts. --For example objects 

must be presented to the senses. 
2*^ Analysis of facts.-- For example, the parts 

of things studied must be separated. 
3*^ Synthesis of relations.-- llie common char- 
acteristics of things studied must be united 

under general terms. 
5^ The method of developing abstract ide.is. - 
Condensed from "Bain's Education as a Sci 
ence " 
i^ The selection of particulars should be such 

as to show all extreme varieties. 
2^ The instances cited should bring out the 

agreements. 
3* The accumulation of the facts should be con- 
tinuous, until the effect is produced. 
4^ A sudden flash of agreement between things 

in many respects different is what is aimed 

at. 
5*^ Aid can be derived from tracing the cause 

and effect. This is the crowning notion of 

science. 
6*^ The number ol instarices necessary varies 

with the character of the things. 
y^ The nanie and the definition should be given 

along with the general notion, when it is 

formed. 
2^ Its Individual Powers, commonly called the psy- 
chical powers, (but general powers are also psy- 
chical.) See General Powers, p. 22. 
1^ The Intellect. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 35 



i'' Def.-The faculty of knovving. -Hill. The soul 
possessing or exercising the power to know.— 
White. To think is the same thing as to know 
and comprehend.- Compayre. 
2" Etymolo;.4y. -From L. i?Uer, between^ and legere, 
to gather ; indicating that knowledge is gathered 
in the transition from one experience to another. 
3 Its functions. -Sully. 

I** Discrimination.- The knowintr of differences. 
2^ Assimilation.- The knowino^ of resemblances. 
4° The product ot knowing. -Knowledge. 

I*' Def.-That condition of certitude in the soul that 
arises when realities or relations are consciously 
apprehended. -Hill. 
2^ Objects of Knowledge-White. 

i^ Subjective, or subject-objects. -The acts and 

states of the soul and their products. 
2^ Objective, or object-objects. -External material 

objects. 
3^ Relational, or relation-objects.-- The relation 
of objects, whether discerned intuitively or by 
thought. 
3^ Kinds of knowledge. 

1" As to manner in which known. 

r"" Scientific. --Knowledge properly classified. 
2^ Unscientific — UnclassiHed knowledcr^, sim- 
ply information. 
2' As to its stage in the soul. 

I* Primitive.— Crude, first knowledge, as gain- 
ed by the use of the perceptive powers 
alone. 
2^ Developed. -Knowledge in which the signif- 
icance, relation, and use of what has been 



J 



6 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY 



gathered by the perceptive powers are cen- 
tralized and classified by conception. 
3' As to powers of Intellect, by which known. 
i*^ Presentative knowledge. -The knowledge 
the soLil has of iiiself and things immediately 
about it through self-consciousness, sense- 
perception, and intuition. 
2^ Representative. --Knowledge the soul has of 
objects and their qualities when neither is 
actually pre:<ent to the senses, but re-pre- 
sented by ideas. 
3*^ Elaborative.-- Presentative knowledge work- 
ed out by purely psychical processes into 
higher and more general forms. -Hill. 
4** Constitutive. -Knowledge acquired by an 
examination ot postulates and hypotheses. 
5° Intellectual powers.-- Three classes. 

i'' Presentative powers.-- Three in number. 

i^ Self-Consciousness. --Authors generally make 
no distinction between consciousness and self- 
consciousness. Pur a study of the former see 
"General Powers." There may be the lollow- 
ing distinction : 

1*^ Consciousness includes the three elements 
in every act of knowledge : The knowing 
subject, the object of knowledge, and the 
states ol the soul as affected by the object 
of know.ledge. But self-consciousness is 
limited to the soul's knowledge of itself in 
the act of consciousness. 
2*^ Forms of self-consciousness. --Hill. 

1^ Spontaneous. --May be calT d inherent, 
such as savages possess--a consciousness 
without an inquiry into cause and effect. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2)7 



2^ Reflective.— 'That energetic realization of self- 
existence acquired by profound reflection upon 
the nauu'e and cause of our beings." 
i'^ Its normal forms. --The philosophical and 

the ethical. 
2"^ Its iibnormai forms.- Ihe precocious, the 
egotistic, the hypochondriacal. 
2" Sense-perception. 

i^ Def.-- The soul's power to know material objects, 
to know the nonEgo. It is the foundation of 
all our knowledge, but not the immediate source 
of all knowledge, as we may gain knowledge by 
intuition and self-consciousness also. As indi- 
cated by the term itself, it is perception through 
the senses. 
2^ Etym(-)U)gy.-From Latin Z*^;-, meaning through, 
and caper e, to take. This implies taking in 
knowledge through one or more ot the senses 
-^ Uses of the term. 

i^ To designate a power. — We speak of the per- 
ception possessed by the soul. 
2^ To designate an act. --As your perception of 

sound is not acute. 
3^ To designate the thing perceived 
4*^ The physical conditions of sense-perception, 
i^ Material object, or external excitant, capa- 
ble ot furnishing an impression. 
2^ The nervous organism, or sensorium, adapted 

to receiving and conveying impression. 
3'' The sensorial excitement, or the actual exci- 
tation of the sensorium. These three condi- 
tions of perception may be called the antece- 
dents of perception. 
5** The psychical elements of sense-perception. 



38 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

1^ Perception proper. --The act by which the ex- 
ternal object is known. An act or process ot 
the mind immediately successive to a sensation, 
by which we refer this sensation to something 
external as its cause. --Steele. 
2^ Sensation. --A state of mind produced by some 
external object or influence operating on the sen- 
sorium The pleasures or pains which immedi- 
ately follow a material phenomenon. --Compayre. 
A cognized affection of the nerves. --Hewett. 
6*^ Classes of sense-perceptions. 

i^ An original perception is one that is obtained 
from the excitation oi a single sense, and that 
the one exercised. 
2^ An acquired perception is oriven by one sense as 
a sign of knowledge usually gained by another. 
i^' Kxamples.--By the sound in the stethoscope 
the physician knows the condition ot the heart, 
though he can not see it. By rapping on a 
barrel we knew by the sound whether it is 
empty, partially filled, or entirely filled. Here 
the sense of sound givt-s us an acquired per- 
ception that might be given by the sense of 
sight. 
2'° Classes of acquired perceptions. 

i^^ Those of touch are the most valuable. 1 o 
the artisa4i they are a kind of mechanicrd 
conscience. 
2^^ Of smell,- 1 he odor of a peach will cause 

us to identify the object. 
3" Of taste. — By taste we have perceptions of 

objects commonly known to us by smell. 
4'' Of hearing. --We have perceptions of a per- 
son by the familiar sound of his footstep. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCtlOLOGY. 39 

5^' Of sight.-- We judge of distance by sight, also 
the intensity of color and distinctness of out- 
Hne. We judge ot the magnitude of objects 
by distance and by comparing them with other 
objects known to us or in the same view with 
other objects. 
7^ Classification of the Senses. 

i^ Molar or dynamical senses.— Tactile, the sense 

of touch, and acoustic, the sense of hearing. 
2^ Molecular or chemical senses. --Dialytic, the 
sense of taste, and catalytic, the sense of smell. 
3^ Intermolecular or etheric senses. --Thermic, the 
sense of temperature, and photic, the sense of 
sight. 
8*^ Percepts. 

i^ Def.— A percejjt is a simple and single presen- 
tation ol sense-perception-an isolated fragment 
of knowledge. Any object of knowledge as 
known by us . is a group ot percepts. Putnam 
says a percept is a complete mental product ot 
the act of perceiving. The individual notion we 
get ol an object by our senses while we are ex- 
ercising our senses upon it. 
' 2^ Difference between percept and concept. -When 
our senses cease to act upon an object, the no- 
tion that persists or returns is a concept of it.-- 
Hewett. When several successive and related 
percepts are united into one psychical whole the 
result is a concept, particularly a sense-concept. 
3^ Difference between percept and image.-- A sense- 
concept, or a percept revived by an act of the 
memory, is usually called an image, but it is 
doubtful if percepts of smell, sound, and taste 



40 OUTLINKS OF PSYCIJOLOCiY. 

may be revived into images. They may be 
called sense-concepts, however. 
9*^ Relation of perception to education. 

1^ Sense-perception furnishes the crude material 
lor all mental activity, except that mentioned in 
intuition and the soul's knowledge of itself in 
self-consciousness, vv^hich together include much 
less than sense perception. 

2^ The growth of the perception is the growth of 
our discriminative power, that is, our conscious- 
ness of differences and agreements. 

■^ A study of the laws of perception teaches us 
that the earliest studies of childhood should be 
objective and presentative. 

4^ Concrete facts and not abstract ideas should be 
imparted, and by actual observation whenever 
possible. 

5'^ The method of study should be that ot object 
lessons. 

6^ (he improvement ol sense-perception is attained 
by exercise* 

7'"^ The degree of education and the kind of knowl- 
edge the child has already obtained through 
sense-perception before he enters school should 
be recognized there, and his training continued 
according to the laws of mind growth. The per- 
ceptive faculty should continue to be exercised. 

8^ These facts are the basis of Kindergartenism, 
which was founded by Frederick W. Froebel, 
a German thinker, 1782- 1852, who borrowed the 
idea from John H. Pestalozzi. a Swiss educator, 
1 746-1827. The etymology of the word kinder- 
garten really means a children's garden, a place 
where the child-mind can be naturally developed 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 4 1 

by exccise in the lines of activity in whicii the 
child-mind deli^^hts. Here is an all-important 
th')Ught for teachers of primary grades. 
3^ Intuition. -See i^ Sell-consciousness, etc. 

i^ Def.- That power of the soul by which wt- know 
Ccjrtain fundamental things without being taught. 
-Hewett. The power of mind which makes us 
acquainted with simple, primary ideas and truth. 
-Putnam 
2* Relation. -Knowledge which appears to comt- of 
itself by some law of mind, but not by any pro- 
cess of reasoning. 
3*^ What intuition embraces. -Ideas and truths, 
i^ Intuitive Ideas. 

i^*^ Def --Ideas that spring from the mind's own 

energy. 
2^^ Classes of intuitive ideas. 

i^^ Ideas of space. -Evidently space is not 
known, through the senses, nor by self- 
consciousness. 
2^^ Ideas of duration are intuitive. 
3^^ Ideas ot time are intuitive. 
4" Ideas of being.--All men naturally, in- 

t'litively believe in their own existence. 
5^^ Ideas of right and wrong.- Children nat- 
urally have an idea of right and wrong at 
a very early age. Teachers should place 
more stress upon this fact in dealing with 
the young child. 
6^^ Ideas ot personal identity. -T can not rid 
myself ot the idea that I am the same 
person I always was. No testimony or 
argument could change my conviction, 
hence, the idea is intuitive. 



42 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

3^^ Nature.- A knowledge of intuitive ideas is in- 
nate, and for that reason intuition may be called 
natural reason. Idiots are lacking in intuition, 
while an insane person may lose his intuition and 
still reason logically. 
2^ Intuitive Truths. 

1^*^ Del.- I ruths which every sane and sound mind 
apprehends at once, without the aid of memory, 
judgment, or reason. 
2'*^ Synonyms. -Necessary truths, self-evident truths. 
3^'^ Characteristics, or tests. --If a truth possess the' 
following characteristics it is intuitive. 
i^^ Universality. --It must be the truth every- 
where and at all limes. 
2^^ Self-evidence. -They can not br demons'trated. 
No amount ot evidence can make them more- 
distinct. We can not disbelieve them. 
3^^ Necessity. --To contradict any intuitive truth 

is at once manifestly ai)surd. 
4'^ Singleness.- No intuitive truth can be resolv- 
ed into other truths — they can not be analyzed 
into simplicity. 
4^*^ Examples of such truths. 

i^^ Two thing can not occupy the same space at 

the same time. 
2^^ The whole is equal to the sum ol all its 

parts. 
^'^ All axiomatic truths. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 43 



2'' Represcntaiive i^owers.-See i*^ Presentative. 

i" Def.-That intellectual power by which objects, 
their qualities and relati* ns, not actually present 
to the senses, are represented by concepts, 
ideas, and images. Let the student see the def- 
inition of each of these terms. 
2' Illustration. --A year ago I witnessed a memo- 
rable scene in Chicago. At that time 1 had im- 
mediate or presentative knc^wledge ot the objects 
about me. To-day I have a representative idea 
of that scene that still gives me a distinct knowl- 
edge of it. 
3^ Classification. 

i''' Phantasy. (2^ Imagination. 3'^ Memory.) 
i^ Def.--lhe power ol the soul to reproduce 
its past acts and states spontaneously and 
involuntarily. The images thus reproduced 
are not recognized as products oi past ex- 
perience, and usually seem as present reali- 
ties. 
2^ Etymology.-- From the Qr&QV. pkantazein, to 

cause to appear. 
3® When exercised.- When the other intellec- 
tual powers and the will are at least partially 
passive. It occurs in reverie, dreaming, 
delirium, somnambulism, hypnotism, and 
msanity. Tne first is the simplest form. 
4^ Distinction between phantasy and memory. 
i^^ The function ol phantasy is to reproduce. 
2^^ That of memory is to recognize. 
5'^ Causes. -"A heat-oppressed brain," disor 
dered stomach, anticipation of future pleas- 
ures, brooding over real or imagined wrongs, 
and various forms of disease. 



44 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY 

6^ Characteristics of the idea reproduced by phan- 
tasy. 

1^° It is less vividly realized than the original. 
2'° They are slowly combined. 
3^** The representative image: usually contains 
k-wer elements than the original. 
7^ The modes of reproducing images. 

i^*^ By physical stimulation -Hill says sounds 
have been known"to riny["in the ears for fifteen 
days after a niusical concert, 
2^** By physiological stimulation. 
3^° By psychical stimulation. 
2* Imagination, 

i^ Def.- The power to modify and recombine im- 
ages and ideas. Sense-concepts are not repro- 
duced in imagination. 
2^ Activities of the imagination. -Ruskin. 

i^° Associative^ as exercised b) the painter who 

imagines an object less than its real size. 
2^^ Penetrative, when one seeks out the central 

idea in connection with an object. 
3^° Contemplative, when one is lead to employ 
other images in connection \vith an object. 
;f Limits. -Imagination recombines truthful con 
cepts i.ito complex images and pictures unlike 
anything known, but still within the limits ot ■ 
possibility, while phantasy combines withoui 
regard to law or possibility. Baker says "Phan- 
tasy simply recalls, memory recognizes^ but im 
agination constructs,'' to which we would add. 
Phantasy recalls and reconstructs without regard 
to the possible. 
4^ Varieties of imagination -Hill. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 45 

i^^ Scientific, in which the end is to realize more 
completely the true relation of things. It has 
three forms-mathematical, mechanical, and 
philosophical. 
2^*^ Artistic, the end being to realize such relations 
as will give pleasure to our aesthetic nature, 
under the guidance of sensibility. Its forms are_, 
poetical, pictorial, and architectural. 
3^^ Ethical, the end being the r(^alization of an ideal 
character and conduct, such as will satisfy the 
convictions of conscience, under the guidance of 
the will. 
5^ Relation of imagination to education. 
i'° Used in acquiring knowledge. 

i^^ In reading we must exercise the imagina- 
tion in combining into mental pictures the 
elements of thought suggested. 
2^^ In listening we must do the same. 
3^^ In studying science. -For instance in chemis- 
try : atoms and molecules are invisible. In 
astronomy : the solar system as a whole is not 
presented to the senses. In ueology: we can 
picture geoloi.^ical periods only in succession. 
In geometry : we can comprehend figures by 
the aid of the imagination. 
4^^ In acquiring immediate knowledge we must 
use it. The senses give us only fragments ot 
knowledge, which must be combined and 
unified in the mind. 
2^^ Used in rhetorical production.-- In composition 
it aids us to grasp the subject ; to form a plan ; 
in the search for material ; in arranging this 
to meet a purpose ; in the selection of figures 
ot speech. 



46 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

2,^^ Other uses of imagination. -Hewett. 

i^^ For pure enjoyment. 

2'' Imagination may lighten Hie's burdens. 

3^^ It gives vividness and lorce to language. 

4^^ It Ls essential to success in some ol the most 
practical affairs of lite. 

5^^ It makes possible all that art gives us, both oi 
enjoyment and ot culture. 

6'^ 1l gives us the idea ol pt rsonal excellence tow ard 
which we strive. 

7'^ To the teacher, it may be 01 great service in 
imparting knowledge; it may assist greatly in 
governing, especially in the case o small chil- 
dren ; the successful building of good chanacter 
is not possible without appeal to the imagination. 
4^*^ General laws of imagination. 

1" In imao^iiiatioii we use the materials derived 
Irom our experience 

2^^ We only imagine particular and concrete no- 
tions, while we may think abstract and general 
notions. 

3^^ The imagination tends toward the production 
ot ideals only. 

4^' ihe imagination constructs according to the 
laws of association, which see under "Memory." 
5"^ ihe training of the imagination. 

i^^ Ihe characteristic of an undisciplined mind.- 
Superfluity of images and ideas, disorderly, 
lacking in unity and design. 

2^^ Aim of the educator,- -To prune away redun- 
dancies, to supply deficiencies, and restore unity 
and order in the mental store-house. 

3^^ Means of training. 

1^^ By having pupils observe nature. 



^8 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 47 

2^^ By practicing the paraphrasing- ot poems. 
3^'^ By study of itnaginative literature. 
4^"^ By having pupils practice writing on sub- 
jects purely imaginative, construct ques- 
tions and problems, and make efforts at 
poetry. This wonderful faculty is very 
active in children and should be carefully 
"drawn out" by the teacher. 
6^" Phases of imagination. -White. 

i^^ Modifying phase. — Appears very early in 
the child's life and includes, ist, the imag- 
ining of one thing to be another known 
thing ; 2nd^ the imagining of a known object, 
material or spiritual, to be enlarged or 
dimmished, or otherwise changed 
2^^ Constructive phase. -Eminently the school 
phase, and is used in teaching reading, 
•geography, history, etc. 
3'^ Creative phase. --The imagination that fur- 
nishi'S the artist, inventor and discoverer with 
their ideals, and characterizes the dram- 
atist, poet, and novelist. 
Memory, (i'* Phantasy, 2^ Imagination.) 
i''^ Def.-That representative power which brings 
before the mind concepts of absent objects, caus- 
ing us to recognize and reknow them as once 
known. 
2^ Authors compared.-- The soul's power to repre- 
sent and reknow objects previously known or 
experienced.— White. The power of the mind to 
retain, to reproduce, and to recognize its pre- 
vious acquisitions.- -Putnam. Ihe capacity to 
retain, and the power to recall, represent, and 
recognize our previous cognitions. -Schuyler. 



48 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

That intellectual function which preserves and re- 
news inner states ol consciousness. -Compayre. 
The reproduction ot some idea once present in the 
mind but not now so, with a reference of it to its 
proper place in time. -McLellan. 
3^ The acts of memory. --Three in number. 
1^*^ Retention. 

i^^ Def'-That function of the. memory which 
produces a contitiuation of concepts in a passive 
state of intelligence. 
2^^ Its importance. "Recollection or reproduction 
depends upon retention. Retention depends 
upon the de<;ree of attention mainly. 
2^^ Reproduction. 

i^^ Def.-- That function of memory which brings 
again into consciousness the concepts of ob- 
jects once known but not now, present. 
2^^ Importance. --Our acquisitions of knowledge 
are of no use to us unless we can recall them 
with readiness and accuracy when we will. 
See ''Laws of Association" below. 
3^*^ Recognition. 

i^^ Def.--That function of memory which reknows 
concepts when recalled as being former ac- 
quisitions ot the intellect. 
2^^ Importance. --It is the last and completing act 
of memory Retention and reproduction 
would both' be useless without recognition. 
4^ Varieties of memory. 

J 10 Perfect and imperfect. --In perfect memory we 
recognize the time and place, i. e., when and 
where the object was formerly known. ^ Very 
lew of our acts of memory are perfect. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY, 49 

2'" Voluntary and involuntary memory.- These; 
terms are more properly applied ro recollection 
or reproduction. Voluntary recollection is the 
recalling of past acquisitions through an effort 
ol the will. This recognizes a very important 
law, that the power of recollecting is increased 
by exercise. Involuntary recollection is the re- 
calling of concepts through their associaiion with 
ideas already in the mind, and without an effort 
of the will. 
5^ Conditions on which to improve memory. 

i^^ Make your acquisitions under the most favor- 
able circumstances of physical and mental states. 

2^° Preserve the vigor of the mind by exercise. 

3^° Frequently repeat ) our cognitions and recol- 
lections. 

4^^ Make frequent a-nd accurate reproductions of 
your acquisitions through the medium ot lan- 
guage — write them and speak them. 

5^° Always ascertain relations of objects and store 
up concepts of them as classified knowledge. 

6^^ Always strive to identify reproduced ideas, 
understand what you may think you know but 
in reality only seem to know. 
6^ Forgetfulness. 

i^^ Amnesia. --A loss of memory; caused by dis- 
eases or wo'unds affecting the brain, old age, 
excessive use of the memory, or by ansesthetics. 

210 Degrees of forgettulness --Schuyler, 
i^^ When the displacement is momentary. 
2^^ When the withdrawal of attention is voluntary. 
3^^ VV^hen the recollection requires an effort. 
4^^ When we can not, at present, recall. 
5^^ When repeated efforts to recall have tailed. 



50 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

7^ The Laws of Association. 

i^" Def.-- They are laws governing the relation of 
impressions. They were first laid down by 
Aristotle. (See "History of Education.") 
2^*^ Classification. 

i^^ Primary or objective laws. -Refer to the rela- 
tions existing between thoughts or the objects 
of thought.— See lUcCosli's Psychology, 
i^^ The Law of Similarity --Objects or thoughts 
which resemble each other tend to recall 
each the other. 
2^'^ Fhe Law of Contrast.- Contrasted ideas 
tend to recall each other. Many objects, 
also, when presented to the mind tend to 
recall other objects in contrast with them 
3'^ The Law of Contiguity -Objects and ideas 
associated in time or place tend to recall 
each other. 

I ^^ Contiguity of time. --Very important in 
school instruction. VYe associate Wash- 
ington and the Revolution ; Lincoln and 
emancipation ; and many of the most im- 
portant facts in history. 
2'^ Contiguity ot place. --Events are associ- 
ated with the places at which they occur- 
red ; the metals with the mountainous 
countries ; the grains with the fertile soil, 
and-numerous other examples in history 
and geography. 
2^^ Secondary or subjective laws. --Refer to con- 
ditions of both mind and body which contrib- 
ute to make the association of ideas more 
complete. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 5 I 



i^'^ The relation of cause and effect. -By 
reason the mind will arrive at a conclu- 
sion when a cause is known, or accurately 
presume the cause when the effect is 
known. 
2'^ Exclusive attention and clear discrimina- 
tion during the acqusition of knowledge 
will tend to fix that knowledge. 
3^^ Familiar objects and thoughts often re- 
viewed tend to make knowledge more 
permanent- — hence, the importance of rep- 
etition, even thoug^h it be merelv mechan- 
ical with children 
4'^ If our individual feelings, habits, and 
tendencies are tavorable, ideas will be 
most permanent. 
5'^ The more recent the experience the 
more readily it may be recalled. 
^^^ Cultivation of the memory. 

i"' General rule. -If the tcracher or the student ad- 
here strictly to the application of the laws of as- 
sociation in their connection with attention and 
reproduction, a sound and vigorous memory will 
be the reward. 
2^^ Special rules. 

i'^ Skilliul questioning brings the mind in close 
contact with the relations between facts, and 
these relations become the bonds of associa- 
tion for the memory. -Dr. Baker. 
2'^ For the greater part, memory should be a 

memory ot ideas rather than of words. 
3^^ Interest is the mother ot attention, and attention 
is the mother of memory; hence, create an in- 
terest to spring up in the mind of the student. 



52 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY 

3^° Memonic devices.— Simonides, the Greek 
poet of 500 B. C, was the first to use this 
method. The vahje of mnemonics is ques- 
tionable, In some instances they assist 
what may be called the mechanical mem- 
ory, :See Sully's Hand-Book lor an ex- 
cellent treatise upon the subject of mem- 
ory culture. 
3** Thought Powers. 2^ Representative. 

1^ Def. — The powers of intellect by which we form 

and rationally apply general conceptions. 
2" Classification. -Conceptive Generalization, Judg- 
ment, and Reason. 

1*^ Conceptive Generalization, or Conception -- 
The author thinks this one of the intellectual 
powers inseparably connected with the other 
functions of the intellect, hence has classed it 
as a General Powtr, which see. 
2^ Judgment. 

i^ Def.--The process ot asserting agreement 

or disagreement between ideas.— Hill. 
2^ A judgment. --The psychical product of 
judging when expressed in a proposition is 
a judgment. 

1^" Parts of judgments. -Every judgment em- 
braces the expression of two related 
ideas.' One of these is the subject, the 
other the predicate. They are joined by 
the copula. These are the three necessary 
parts of a proposition. 
2'*^ How a judgment is obtained. --By affirm- 
ing or denying one thing ot another. It 
can only be arrived at by comparing the 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 53 



agreements, relations, and differences between 
ideas or things. 
3*^ What judgment implies. --No one can form a judg- 
ment without a pre-existing knowledge of the 
agreements or differences between the things to be 
judged. This knowledge may be obtained almost 
immediately before making a judgment concerning 
them, but it must be known. 
4^ Age at which judgment is first developed.— It is an 
earlier faculty than reason, and is probably mani- 
fest in observing children at the age of 3 or 4 years. 
Dr. White thinks that the judgment awakens at 
the age of three and reason at the age of six, gen- 
erally. 
5^ Classification of judgments, 
i^*^ As to origin. 

i^'^ A primitive judgment. --Not derived from any 
other judgment, and may be intuitive or a 
mere assumption. 
2^^ A derivative judgment. --One derived from 
other judgments, and may be called demon 
strative when capable of prooi, and problemat- 
ical when incapable of proof. 
2^° .\s to relation of their two ideas. 

i^^ Affirmative. -When the two ideas are conso- 
nant, or possess agreement; as, "The man is 
insane." 
2^^ Negative. -When the two ideas are not com- 
patible, or possess disagreement ; as, "The 
man is not insane." 
3^'^ As to their scope, or quantity. 

i^^ Singular, or particular. --Those made about 
single things or parts of a class ; as, "This 
man is insane." 



54 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

2^^ Universal.— Those relating to classes or the 
whole oi a subject, and must be true at all 
times and in all places; as, "iso work ot 
man is enduring," showing also that singu- 
lar and particular judgments may be affirm- 
ative or negative. 
4^° As to form. 

i^^ Categorical.-- When the relation is express- 
ed without qualification by conditions ; as, 
"Man is mortal," ''Some men are wealthy." 
2^^ Conditional. --In which the judgment is con- 
ditioned on an hypothesis, an alternative, or 
both ; as, "It Mars is a fixed star it is a 
sun." 
6'^ Relation of judgment to education. 

i^*^How iar can we encourage independence of 
judgment in the learner ?— Hill says "To de- 
velop power without conceit is the teacher's 
difficult task." i he teacher should lead out 
and guide the self-confidence ol the pupil, but 
give iiim to see that his judgments must be 
subject to the revision and correction of the 
teacher. 
2**^ Cultivation of the judgment.-- The exact sci- 
ences and experiments in the laboratory are 
the best means of cultivating the judgment. 
All lessons" gained by experience strengthen 
the judgment. 
3** Reason. 8ee Conception and Judgment. 

i^ Def.-lhe process by which we prove the truth 

or falsity of a proposition. 
2^ Authors compared.— A process ol inference in 
which a new judgment is derived from other 
known judgments.— Hill. A combination of 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 55 



judgments brought together in such a way that the 
result is a legitimate conclusion of the comparison. 
--Compayre. The process of comparing judgments. 
--Putnam. 
3*^ The torms ot reasoning.— When expressed in full 
the process of reasoning is expressed in a regular 
series of judgments. 

i^" Implicit.-- When the grounds for the conclusion 
are assumed as understood and admitted. See 
enthymeme. 
2^^ Explicit. --When the whole series of necessary 
judgments are formally expressed. See syllo- 
gism. 
4"* Methods of reasoning, 
i^" Induction. 

i'^ Def.— The process of inference, or the process 
of inlerring general judgments from particular 
instances. 
2^^ Authors compared, --The process of rising 
from particular truths to general truths. --Com- 
payre. The operation of reaching a general 
truth by an examination and comparison of 
facts. "Sully. Reasoning from individuals or 
particular classes to general facts. --Steele. In 
short, it may be called proceeding from the 
known to the unknown, from fact to law. 
3" Its form. --One of the three terms may be 
omitted, but three propositions may be used 
in induction. The conclusion reached by in- 
duction may be used as a premise in deduc- 
tion, which see. 
4'^ Basis.-- 'The belie! in the uniformity of the 
laws ot nature is the ground upon which we 



56 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY, 

argue from the known to the unknown. ""-Dr. 
Baker, President Colorado University. 
5^** Processes of complete induction. 
i" Observation or experiment. 
2^^ Stating an hypothesis. 
3^^ Reversing by deduction, and verification. 
2^ Deduction. 

i^*^ Def.-An act of judgment by a mediate process 
in which we arrive at a particular conclusion 
based on a general law. 
2^" Authors compared.— The process by which we 
derive a particular truth from a general truth. - 
Hewett. Deduction descends from principle to 
consequence. --Compayre. Reasoning from a 
general fact to a particular fact. -White. 
3^" Forms of deduction. 

i^^ The enthymeme.--An enthymeme is an abridg- 
ed syllogism, a statement in which a conclusion 
is reached by omitting one of the three propo- 
sttions of the syllogism. The omitted state- 
ment must be evidently true in order that the 
conclusion may be undeniable. 
2^^ The syllogism. 

i^^ Def.-- rliat form of deduction in which the 
conclusion is reached by means of three 
related propositions. 
2^2 Parts. - 

1^^ Major premise. --The proposition contain- 
ing the major term and expressing an af- 
firmation ot the class; "All men make 
mistakes." 
2^^ Minor premise. -The proposition that 
states that the individual in question be- 



ni-i '1 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 57 

longs to the clas^ named in the major 
premise; "Charles Brown is a man." 
2^'^ Conclusion, --llie proposition expressing 
the resulting judgment based on a com- 
parison of the two premises ; "Therefore, 
Charles Brown makes mistakes " 
The terms. -The subject of the conclusion 
is the Minor Term ; the predicate of the con- 
clusion is the Major Term. : the term with 
which these two are compared is the Middle 
Term. 
4'^ Illustration. "In the example given "Charles 
Brown" is the minor term: "makes mis- 
takes" is the major term; "man" is the 
middle term. 
5^ Relation oi reason to education.- Inductive 
reasoning is best developed by a study ol the 
natural sciences, while deductive reasonmg is 
greatly improved by a study of mathematics. 
The importance of developing the reasoning 
powers of pupils can hardly be over-estimated 
by the teacher. 
2^ Sensibility, (i^ Intellect, p 34.) 

r^ Def.--The soul exercising the power to feel. 
2" What it includes. --Corporeal feelings and psy- 
chical feelintrs 
3'^ The sensibilities. -The term is applied to the 

various states of feelina. 
4^ Classification, 
i*^ Corporeal feelings. -Outlined in connection 
with the nervous system and sense percep- 
tion. 
2^ Psychical fee-lings. 



58 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

r The emotions. 

1^ Det. -Simple leelings arising in the mind in con- 
sequence of some knowledge of certain facts, or 
some genera! consciousness ot condition. -Steele, 
p. 174. 
2*^ Classification. 

1® Instinctive. --Those feelings of joy or sorrow 
experienced especially by young children, 
usually aimless, and occasioned by an accumu- 
lation of energy or a lack of energy. 
2^ Rational.- Those feelings that arise in the soul 
in consequence of some activity of the intellec- 
tual powers. They may be excited through 
the senses, or by recollection or by anticipa- 
tion. 
I '" Egoistic emotions. 

i^' Joy and sorrow.- These terms include 
many forms ot gladness and depression, 
mirthfulness and melancholy, etc. 
2^^ Content and discontent. -May be made 
to include satisfaction and dissatislaction. 
3^^ Pride and humiliation.- With the first 
might be placed selt-love, self-respect, etc. 
4'^ Hope and fear. -May be subdivided. 
2^*^ Altruistic emotions. 

1^' Sympathy and antipathy. 
2'^ Love' and hatred. --These may be classed 
under the affections, which see. 
3^'' ^Esthetic emotions. 

i'^ Wit, humor, the ludicrous, etc. 
2'^ Beauty, grandeur, sublimity, etc. 
4^*^ Ethical emotions. 

i^^ Emotions of right and wrong. 

2" Of duty, responsibility, obligation, etc. 



OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 59 



2^ The affections. 

i^ Def.-They are feelings of the soul directed 
toward external objects, such as the love ot God, 
of home, of country, ol kindred^ etc. 
2^ Classification. 

i^ The beneficent affections-Feelings of good- 
will toward those we wish to benefit in some 
way. 
i^'^ Domestic affections, such as parental love, 

filial love, and fraternal love. 
2^° Social affections^ very numerous. 

1^^ Friendship, gratitude, sympathy, com- 
passion, etc. 
2^^ Patriotism and philanthropy. -Patriotism 
is that feeling which causes us to place 
first in our affections the ethics ot our 
families, then of our neighbors, then our 
state, and next our country. Philanthropy 
is a feeling of good-will going out to the 
human race in general with a desire to 
make all mankind better. 
2^ The defensive affections. -Putnam, p. 138. 
i^"^ Def.-Feelings that prompt to self defense 

or the protection of others. -Same. 
2"^ Resentment.— ''It springs up in the soul 
when we believe ourselves to have been in- 
sulted, injured, or wantonly wronged by de- 
liberate intention^ and when the injury or 
wrong may work serious harm to us in per- 
son, property, or reputation. "-Same, p. 139. 
3^^' Indignation. -The feeling which prompts one 
to protect and defend others who have been 
unjustly injured or wronged. 
3^ The maleficent affections. 



6o OU'J'LINES OF PSYCHOLOGY 

i'^ Dcf.-Those feelinu:> directtrd toward 
others with the intent to do them harm. 
2"* Some of the forms.- Anger, hate, pre- 
judice, jealously, envy, revenge^ malice. 
3*^ linportance ol 'the affections.- The leacher 
should strive to understand human nature. 
A careful study ot the affections in their 
relation to the work ot the school is of vast 
importance to every teacher 
3' Desires. 

i*^ Def.-- The longings of the soul lor some real 

or supposed good not posses.sed. 
2** Classification. 

i^ Desire for property.-- The main^pri'ng of 
industry, all advancement and civilization 
depend on it. 
2^ Desire for' knowledge. -This springs di- 
rectly trom the feeling excited by curios 
ity. Its stimulus must not be overlooked 
in the education ot the child. 
3^ Desire ot self-preservation. -It may be 
instinctive or voluntary. Needs no illus- 
tration No principle in our beings is 
stronger than this one. 
4'-* Desire ot power.- This desire is strong 
and natural, and should sometimes be 
curbed and sometimes en-couraged. 
5^ Desires for liberty, happiness, esteem, 
and general worthiness. 
3^ The will. (2^ Sensibility, i^ Intellect.) 

r^ Det.--The soul's power to do, or to exert con- 
scious action toward some definite end. 
2'^ Forms of activity. 



OU'J'LINES UF PSYCHOLOGY. 6 1 

I** Nou-vokintary or reflex. --Does not include lunc- 
tions of tne will as the term is ordinarily used, 
bu; lunctions of the doing power ot the soul 
nevertheless. All our random, reflex, and in- 
stinctive movements come under this head. 
2^ Voluntary, activity ot the will proper. 
1^ Steps in the process. 

\^ Objects are pres.ented to the mind, through 
the sources ol desire, motive, or sense-per- 
ception ; the objects may be physical or 
mental. 
2*^ Examination and analysis.-- i he mind re- 
quires some time to perceive relations be- 
fore an act ot the will is completed. This 
step includes the excitation ol a leelmg. 
3*^ Choice. --Desire prompts the possession ot 
the object, while aversion prompts rejection. 
iHere perlect freedom ot choice is exercised. 
4^ Executive volition - ihe final act of the will, 
by whicii desires culminate into reality ot 
possession. 
2' This voluntary activity alone subject to train- 
ing. 
3'^ Moral Lraining. 

I ' Depends upon the training ot the will. 
2^ [Methods. 

i' As Icnowledge tends to awaken teeling, it is 
all-important that right tetrlings be awakened. 
In some ciildren these teelings may be dor- 
mant, but by skiiltul training the teelings may 
be awakened, then directed. 
2' Stories eiiectively told biographies beautifully 
expressed, some tairy tales judiciously told, all 
may tend to cultivate the moral nature. 



62 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

3^ Feelings may be ennobled by use of literary gems. 

songs, and works of art. School-rooms should be 

adorned with suitable pictures. 
4^ By example. --Moral instruction from mouth to ear 

will hardly reach the heart — it must come from the 

heart and the life of the teacher. 

(See "Qualifications of the Teacher" in Outline of 

Pedagogy.) 



£ 



i^ Def.--See "History ot Education,'' following this 

outline. 
2^ Synonyms. --Science of Teaching, Paideutics, Sci- 
ence of Education. 
3^ Basis of Pedagogy.— The one comprehensive end 
of pedagogy is to prepare man a being of capaci- 
ties, susceptibilities, and possibilities, for the most 
complet'i fulfillment of the purposes for which he 
was created. 
4^ Means of accomplishing these purposes, --Physical, 
Psychical, and Technical, or power, knowledge, 
and skill. 
5^ Kinds ol education based on the means, 

j^ Physical education. -The development and train- 
ing of the bodily powers. 
2^ Moral education.-- The development and training 
of the moral faculties with a view of forming 
character. 
3^ Intellectual education. --The development and 
training of the intellectual powers along the laws 
governing the processes in the acquisition of 
knowledge. 
6^ f he elements. -Knowledge, power, and skill, 
i^ Knowledge as a result of teaching. 

r^ Original. -Obtained without the aid of a 
teacher, by observation and reflection, chiefly 
from nature. 



64 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 

2^ Recorded. -Knowledge obtained Irom books, 

paintings, sculptures, newspapers, rtc. 
3"^ Tuitionary.--l"hat obtained directly from the 
teacher. In each case the mind can receive 
knowledge only when it puts forth an inner 
energy. 
2^ Power. 

i'^ Inherent.--The capacity of the intellectual, 
moral, and physical natures to receive ability 
from without, or their capability for doing 
when called into activity. 
2^ Acquired.- These intellectual, moral, and phys- 
ical powers developed into lines of activity 
they would not have taken without tuition. 
2^ Skill, or educated and trained power. 

i^ School phase. --The trained power to practice 
the arts embraced in school instruction, such 
as writing, reading, singing, and use of lan- 
cruay^e and numbers. 
2^ The technical phase. -Includes manual train- 
ing and the practice ot power in the mechanic 
arts. 
7^ Conditions of the application of principles to school 
government, 
i^ Subjective. 
i^ The teacher. 

i"* His qualifications. 

1^ Good scholarship.- His knowledge must 

be thorough, fresh, and progressive. 
2'^ A thorough knowledge ot the human 
mind. — Any artisan would be foolish to 
undertake a work without knowing his ma- 
terial. A doctor might as properly ad- 



OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 65 

minister to the sick without knowing" the body 
as the teacher without knowing- the mind. 

3^ A thorough knowledge of methods. -Although 
teachers must not blindly adopt the methods ot 
others, yet in all professions and trades we must 
know what methods have been most successful 
in the hands of others. 

5*^ Skill in government.-Executive ability and tact. 

6° Thoroughness of discipline.- Coming from a 
knowledge of human, nature and of the end to be 
reached. 

7" Must understand his pupils personally --Must 
know their wants — moral, intellectual, and phys- 
ical. 

8° Heart power.— He must have love for his pupils, 
and a kindness not feigned. 

<f Self-control.- His control of himseli must be com- 
plete and his motives always pure. 

10' Positive morality." I4is character should be 
above reproach, his life pure, that his example 
may be worthy. 

II" Respect for the profession.-Not only a thorough 
scholar, but a lady or a gentleman ot dignity, 
who has a strong desire for professional improve- 
ment and to create a healthy sentiment for the 
profession on the part of all intelligent people. 
2^ His authority. 

i^ He must possess a certificate. 

2^ He must be legally employed. 

3^ He must have the support of his board of edu- 
cation. 

4" He must be vested with all the authority nec- 
essary to carry out every detail of school man- 
agement. 



66 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 

2'^ P Lipils. 

r^ Their rights.-- I o equal attention, equal confi- 
dence, equal immunities, unless privileges are 

abused, and equal personal rights. 
2^ 1 heir duties.- lo themselves to be cleanly and neat 

in attire ; to their teacher to be kind, respectful, 

and obedient; to each other to keep the Golden 

Rule; to school property a careful preservation ; 

to the community respectful. 
3^ Their offenses. 

i^ Against themselves. --In tearing and soiling 
their books or clothing; in idleness ; in bad 
manners; in saying and doing immoral thmgs. 

2^ Against the teacher. -In disob(^'dience and dis- 
respectiul obedience; in slandering the teach- 
er in conversation with school-mates or others. 

3^ Against other pupils.- Encouraging them to 
do wrong; accusing them talsely; tr) ing to 
create a sentiment of dislike upon the part of 
their teacher or their school-mates; injuring 
their books, clothing, or play things. 

4^ Against the community.-- Making a noise ; 
throwing stones ; molesting property ; disre- 
spect and rudeness toward the public. 

5'^ Against God. -Profane language ; vulgar lan- 
guage and conduct; scoffing at religion and 
religious customs; general immoral conduct. 
4^ Their rewards. 

i^ The approbation of teachers, parents, and 
Iriends. 

2° Promotion in school or in society. 

3^ Successful life resulting from discipline. 

4^ Present material gain, such as prizes and 
other gifts. 



OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 67 



5^ 'J'heir punishment. 

r^ Deprivation of privileges in school, on tlie 

play-grounds, or private immunities. 
2° Private or public reprooi; teacher may some 

times use sarcasm, but with care. 
3^ Confinement, in school-room or solitary ; 

from privileges of school or play. 
4^ Additional duties and repairing damages. 
5^ Public and private acknowledgment of ol- 
fense, with petitien ior pardon and for re- 
instatement in class and in the confidence 
of the teacher and school. 
6° Corporal punishment, private or public, 
usually the tormer; must accomplish pur- 
pose for which intended or it will be harmful. 
7^ Suspensions and expulsions. -Severe, but 
some times necessary. The claims of justice 
and the good oi the school and of society 
demand protection. 
2^ Objective conditions — the environments. 
1^ The school-room. 

i^ It should be attractive and convenient. 
2^ It should be well heated and ventilated. 
3! It should be adorned with pictures. 
4* The light should enter from left and rear. 
5^ It should not be over-crowded. 
2^ The furniture. 

i^ Desks should be single and of pattern design- 
ed on sanitary principles. 
, 2'^ Recitation seats should afford ample accom- 
modations. 
3"* The teacher's desk should be provided with a 

waste-basket. 
4^ The blackboards, pencils, erasers, etc.. 



OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 



should be the best and always kept in order. 

5^ Heating" and ventilating appliances should 
be perfect and kept in good order. 
3'^ The apparatus. 

I* Should have a good globe. 

2^ Good wall maps and special charts. 

3^ Appliances lor illustrating practical princi- 
ples of weight, measures, mensuration, etc. 

4^ If grade ot school is advanced, physical and 
chemical laboratories are essential. 

5* A good school library.--No teacher can fully 
comprehend the disadvatages to which his 
school is subject without a good library, 
until he and his school have had free' and 
irequent access to one. Every school 
should have a library of careiully selected 
books. 
4^ An educational sentiment. 

i^ The community must appreciate the efforts 
of her earnest educators. 

2^ The economy in public administration should 
not all be visited on the schools, 

3'' Boards of education need to possess more 
than average intelligence. An institution 
as sacred as the public school needs to be in 
the hands of earnest, thoughtful, progres- 
sive men. 
!^ Some Universal Principles. 
i^ Formulated by Joseph Payne, London, Eng. 
1^ First.-" Mind and body are mutually interde- 
pendent, and co-operate in promoting growth." 
2^ Second.— "Faculty of whatever kind grows by 

exercise." 



OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 69 



3'" Third.--'' Exercise involves repetition, which, as 
regards bodily actions, ends in habits of action, 
and as regards impressions received by the mind, 
ends in clearness of perce[)tion." 
4'^ Fourth.--" The exercise of the child's own powers, 
stimulated but not superseded by the educator's 
interference, ends both in acquisition of knowl- 
edge and in the invigoration of the powers for 
further acquisition." 
5'^ Fifth.--" Natural education consists in the devel- 
opment and training of the learner's powers, 
through intiuences of various kinds, which are 
initiated by action from without and met by cor- 
responding action from within." 
2- Formulated by Dr. E. E. White in his "Ped- 
agogy." 

i^ First. --"Teachings both in matter and method, 
must be adapted to the capability of the taught." 
2^ Second --"There is a natural ori^ler in which the 
powers of the mind should be exercised, and the 
correspondin:^; kinds of knowledge taught." 
3'^ Third. --".A. true course of instruction lor ele- 
mentary school cuts off a section of presenta- 
tive, representative, and thought knowledge 
each year." 
4'^ Fourth. -"Knowledge can be taught only by 
occasioning the appropriate activity of the learn- 
er's mind." 
5'^ Fifth. --''The primary concepts and ideas in every 
branch of knowledge must be taught objectively 
in all grades of school." 
6'^ Sixth. --"The several powers of the mind are 
developed and trained by occasioning their nat- 
ural and harmonious activity." 



']0 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 

7'^ Seventh. -"In the teaching of any school art, 
clear and correct ideals should inspire and guide 
practice." 



't 



i^ Uef.— That division of the subject of education that 
treats ot the principles of teaching as applied to 
school-room practice. 
2^ Extent. "Methodology belongs to both the science 
of teaching and the art of teaching. See "Laurie's 
Institutes ot Education. ' 
3^ Universal Principles of Instruction. 

1^ iVIake instruction practical and find some ^.^ood 
in everything. 

i^ Call for the reproduction ot everything you 
teach and a practical application to the wants 
ot a successful lite. 
2^ Proceed trom the known to the unknown by 
making everything known usetul in obtaining 
new knowledge. 
2^ F'ollovv the natural order ot development of the 
faculties, as laid down in the subject of psy- 
chology. 
3^ Cultivate sense-perception in every lesson. — If 
anything taught can not be presented to the 
senses directly, then you should use representa- 
tive knowledge and appeal to memory and im- 
magination. If the subject be still more abstract, 
judgment and reason must aid conception in 
formulating correct ideas. 
4^ The true secret in the acqusition of knowledge 



72 OUTLINES OF METHODOLOGY. 

is the self- activity of the pupil; hence, teach to 
do by having the pupil do. 
5^ leach one thing at a time, and that well 
6'^ Practice your pupils in the analysis ol complex 
things and in the synthesis of individual things 
into wholes. 
7'^ Have your pupils understand distinctly what 
you wish them to do ; they can do best what 
they see and \\^'d.x you do. 
8^ Cultivate the imagination by frequent practice 

in composition, etc. 
9'^ Cultivate the memory by applying the laws of 
association and by practice, 
4^ Methods in study, 
i^ Objects. 

1^ For discipline. -It develops and quickens all 
the intellectual activities, trains the sensibili- 
ties, and refines the affections. 
2^F'orthe acqusition of knowledge. --Stores the 
mind with facts and classifies them ; increases 
the power to think and investigate ; gives us 
an intellectual capital. 
3^ For professional purposes.-- We are thus pre- 
pared for our professions ; it improves our 
chances for success; helps us to originate and 
discover. 
2'^ Incentives. 

i'^ The benevolent desire. -To please parents, 
teachers, or friends ; to do good and secure 
happiness; to perfect our knowledge and de- 
velop the soul. 
2^The selfish desire. -To outrank others ; to re- 
ceive the praise of others ; to increase our 
wealth ; to make labor easier. 



OUTLINES OF METHODOLOGY. ']2i 

3^ The involuntary incentives-Pleasing stories ; 
iascinating developments or discoveries ; arti- 
ticial stimulation through the senses. 
3^ Manner. 

i^ A clearly-defined purpose urges the will. 

2^ Attention, perception, and conception must be 
awake, 

3^ Investigations by analysis, induction, and de- 
duction should be made. 

4^ Students should note facts learned and store 
them away analytically, i. e., place them upon 
the proper "shelf" properly labeled, 

5^ (Should study to know, not to recite. 
5^ The Recitation, 
i^ Objects. 

i^ To ascertain extent ot pupil's preparation. 

2^ To have pupil's reproduce, express their 
knowledge. 

3^ io ascertain how well the pupil comprehends, 

4^ To correct wrong impressions formed in study. 

5^ To repeat and fix knowledge in the mind, 

6^ lo enable the teacher to supply the defici- 
encies in the student s mind by giving him 
further directions. 

7^ To cultivate power of expression and to quick- 
en the pupil's perception by immediate con- 
tact with other minds. 
2^ Mode of conducting. 

i^ Depends .much upon branch of study, age of 

pupil, number in class. 
2^ By questions propounded in consecutive order 
to the entire class, or promiscuously ; gener- 
ally the last. 

3^ By "Socratic Method;" see "Socrates." 



74 OUTLINES, OF METHODOLOGY. 

4^ By topicai outlines, black-board drills, etc. 

5^ By topical recitation by pupil. 

6^ By requiring answers in complete sentences. 

7^ Sometimes by essays, lectures, illustrative lessons, 
experiments, etc. 

8^ No answer should be allowed to pass if not ex- 
actly correct and logical. 

9'^ Skill in conducting recitations reveals the teacher's 
power as an in,structor. 



rm .ifiSTow or 



Pedagogy, — The theory or science of education, 
which embraces an inquiry into the principles upon 
which the art of teaching is based, and inquires into 
the validity of methods when applied to the laws of 
mental growth 

Didactics. — The practical application of the prin- 
ciples of pedagogy and psychologyto the wants of 
the growing mind, in helping it to obtain the best 
food in the best way and at the best rime ; in short, 
the art, or practice, of education. 

Teaching a Profession. — Is it ? Education is 
looked upon by many people as expensive For this 
reason cheap (?) teachers are often employed in coun- 
try districts and in primary grades. They are un- 
qualified professionally, hence fail. By their failures 
they cast a cloud of disrepute over the profession, 
which subjects even prolessional teachers to a want 
of confidence from patrons. As a result, they are 
placed on a level with those who are only seeking a 
pittance for a livelihood, and their salaries are weigh- 
ed in the same balance. These conditions and the 
insecure tenure of teachers, are the results of profes- 
sional ignorance. 

'What is Education? — It is the development 
and training of the learner's whole nature by means 
of the conscious and persistent energy and influence 
of the instructor. Much of our education, however. 



']6 THE IIISTOKY OF EDUCATION. 

comes from the unconscious tuition of nature, indi- 
viduals, and institutions. 

History of Education. — A complete history of 
education would be co-extensive with the history of 
the development ot the human race. Civilization is 
the direct product of education. The history of edu- 
cation sets forth the influences that have moulded the 
human race, and records the cause and effect of every 
step of advance or retreat in human progress. It is 
the true basis ot all history. 

Its Importance. — Every educator should study 
educational history. It is too generally neglected, 
even by professional teachers. It inspires every edu- 
cational worker v^ith greater zeal and profes8ional 
enthusiasm by citing to him the examples and meth- 
ods of the world's most renowned educators. 

China and Japan. — Although we find little of 
importance outside the history of the Caucasian race^ 
and, outside ot Greece and f^ome, little of ancient 
history bearing on the history of education, yet a 
few nations should be studied. In the Chinese we 
find the opposite of our educational aims most clearly 
crystallized. Kong, whose name was Latinized into 
Confucius, lived about 500 B. C, declared that man's 
destiny and whole duty was to perfect himself. In 
China all deviation Irom the customs of tradition is 
looked upon wifh disfavor, so that their system is 
adapted to perpetuate an exclusive national existence. 
Recent developments prove the Japanese to be a 
much more progressive people. Many English and 
American works are translated for use in their 
schools. 

Persia. — Zoroaster, who lived in the sixth century 
B. C, discovered the dualism in all nature — the right 



THE HlsrORY OF EDUCATION. 'J''] 



and the wrong — and conceived of two co-existent 
spiritual beings, Ormuzd at the head of the kingdom 
of light and Ahriman at the head of the kingdom of 
darkness. His doctrine did much to moralize Persia. 
The Magi were the learned class. It is said that 
much of the learning of Pythagoras was borrowed 
from them. 

iigypt. — Kere perhaps is the oldest civilization ot 
the world. She made her highest attainment in the 
mechanic arts. Psammetichus introduced the Greek 
and Phoenician elements iniio Egyptian civilization. 

Greece. — Homer tells us that during the Heroic 
Age, prior to i lOO B. C, education was chiefly 
patriarchal With the Dorian Migration family life 
gave way to state liie, hence state education. Dori- 
an, or Spartan^ culture made physical strength and 
war-like skill the objective points in order to main 
tain the perpetuation ot the ruling class. 

Pythagoras. — 582-500 B. L. Although not a 
Dorian he was the greatest exponent of Dorian civi- 
lization, rhales was his teacher. He established a 
hchool at Croton, southern Italy, wher<.' he taught 
music, physics, mathematics, geography, and meta- 
physics, by means ol lectures delivered in short, con- 
densed sentences (laconismj. He was the first to 
raise mathematics to a science, and united geometry 
with arithmetic. The great theorem ot the right- 
angled triangle is his. 

Lycurgus. — Also a Dorian, who lived about 850 
B. C. His laws were very stringent. Children be- 
longed to the state. Boys, it strong, were educated 
by the state ; if weakly, they were destroyed. Girls 
were lelt in the parental home 

Solon. — Ionian culture was based on the laws of 



yS THE HISTOKY OF EDUCATION. 

Solon, born 639 B. C. He favored intellectual pur- 
suits, forbade the sale of girls, and required boys to 
learn some pursuit. Parents who tailed to educate 
their boys had no claims to the support of their sons 
in old age 

Socrates. — Born at Athens 469 B. C. Began 
lite as a sculptor. Became a student ol philosophy, 
and a teacher of youth and^ men in search of 
knowled!;^e. 1 aught in the streets by questionmg all 
who would listen to him concerning their notions of 
morality. He gave the impression that he was ask- 
ing questions ior his own information. His fondness 
tor this method of teaching has made it known as the 
" Socratic Method." His stern morality offended- the 
corrupt party in power and he was condemned to die 
by drinking hemlock, 400 B. C. He let't no writings, 
but his teachings are found in Xenophon's "Memora- 
bilia" and in the dialogues of Plato, both his pupils. 

Plato. — 426-347 B. C. He coniprehended Soc 
rates fully. His philosopy, known as the Academic 
because he taught in the grove ot Academus, is that 
of idealism. He taught that the soul consists ot 
three parts: (i) The appetite, wild, capable of being 
tamed; (2) The spirit, which may work in lines of 
good or evil; (3) The philosophic element. He 
taught education v^as the privilege and duty of the 
state, and that education is the noblest and most im- 
portant of all callings. He wrote " Republic," de- 
scribing an ideal state. 

Aristotle. — Greek, 384-322 B. C, was the most 

noted pupil of Plato. At 47 he became Alexander's 

tutor. At 50 he established his school known as the 

flLyceem. He lectured while walking about, hence 

his school of philosophy became known as the Peri- 



THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 79 



patetic (to walk around). He wrote a number of 
books on various sciences. He held that man 
should be trained by the state. On a charge oi athe- 
ism he fled from Athens the year ot his death. 

Rome. — Numa Pompilius was the hrst itoman 
worthy the name ol educator. Varro and Cicero 
wrote on educational subjects prior to Christian era, 
Cicero taught tnat teachers should be just ; that pun- 
ishment should only be resorted to in extreme cases; 
that tne pupil siiould be made to teel that correction 
was administered only with the desire to make him 
better, and should never be administered in anger ; 
that memory should be cultivated ; that moral culture 
should be encouraged. 

Dawn of Christian Era. — Seneca was ihe first 
Roman writer on education belonging to the Chris- 
tian era. Quintilian thought that weak- minded chil- 
dren and children that cannot learn, are very tew. 
The Romans do not furnish us with systems ot edu- 
cation, but from them we receive many practical sug 
gestions in accordance with common sense and tne 
correct principles of humanity. But tne birth ol 
Christ, 4 years before the beginning ot the Christian 
era, brought about a new religion, and with it a new 
civilization based on pure humanity. This new relig- 
ion taught that stagnation is death and progress is 
life, and that the greatest is he who does most to ele- 
vate humanity. 

The Middle Ages. — We hear but little more ot 
education until the i6th century. The early Chris- 
tians took greai interest in the education oi their 
children. Their system sacrificed the intellectual to 
the moral element ot our nature. But for a thousand 
years prior to the 15th century education was housed 



8o THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

in cloisters, books were chained to their owners' 
desks, and education was possessed by the few. The 
tendency of the education was to spurn the present 
world in the interests ot the world to come ; to 
foster asceticism^ ceHbacy, transcendent.dism, monas- 
ticism. Did space permit, an account of the secular 
education ot the 4ro years of the Middle Ages and 
of the knightly education would be given here. The 
student should study the history of institutions of the 
Middle Ages. 

The Reformation. — Instituted by Martin Luther, 
1483- 1 546. Although Luther could not devote him- 
self exclusively nor directly to the cause, yet his ef- 
forts were not fruitless in Protestant Germany. , The 
churches took up the establishment of popular in- 
struction, and he thus became the crfeatest educa- 
tional reformer of his century. 

Philip Melancthon. — 1497-1560, is known as 
the " Preceptor of Germany. "He knew Luther, from 
whom he drew energy. He was noted for his discre- 
tion, mildness, sympathy, and love for children. He 
has the distinction of having written the first Protes- 
tant work on dogmatic theology. His passion found 
greatest expression in literature. He divided the 
schools into grades, very much as they are now. He 
believed in teaching but one language, and in much 
practice in grammar. 

John Sturm.:— 1 507- 1 589, a Prussian by nativity, 
a German by nationality. He organized the gym- 
nasium at Strasburg, which numbered several 
thousand students before his death. His was the first 
systematic organization of the schools His course 
of study was extensive yet systematic ; suitable, and 
sensible. He is the father of system in instruction. 



THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 



He formulated the algebraic theorem that bears his 
name. 

Lord Bacon. — Born in London, 1566, died 1626. 
Was eloquent and learned. Kis official career was 
diso|-rajetul^ his morals reprehensible. But he Ireed 
mankind from scholastic word-wisdom, and taught 
that scientific life consists ol independent investiga- 
tion, discovery, and invention. The student must 
rise from the phenomena to the law, from facts to ac- 
curate conceptions. 

John Amos Comenius. — 1592-1671, a Moravian. 
Was a minister ; was banished by Frederick II. in 
1624, and fled to Poland, where he devoted his time 
to education. Ke did much for simplifying Latin. 
He wrote " Orbis Pictus," or the Visible World, in 
which he expressed more rational views on education 
than then prevailed. He asked for airy and light 
school-rooms, and tor plenty of play-ground as essen- 
tial to every well-regulated school. He urged the 
necessity of a harmonious development of the entire 
human being. He did much to modernize instruc 
tion. 

John Locke. — 1632-1704, Eng. philosopher. He 
said it is education that makes the g-reat difference 
of mankind. He set little store by mere book-learn- 
ing. He saiil that education consists ot virtue, wis- 
dom, good-breeding, and learning, of which he 
thought learning the least part. He strenuously ob- 
jected to the use of the rod. He condemned commit- 
ting to memory when the subject was not fully com- 
prehended. 

Jean Jacques Rosseau. — 1712-1778, a Swiss 
educator of extreme views. His chief maxim, was, 
" Take the road leading directly opposite to the one 



82 THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

in use, and you will almost always go right." But 
few relormers have exerted a greater influence upon 
education. His greatest work is " Emile, or Con- 
cerninor Education." It needs to be read with ereat 
discrimination, yet every teacher should read it. He 
believed in the cultivation of sense-perception, and in 
the development ot the complete man. 

Augustus Herman Francke. — 1663-1727, a 
German educational reformer. His c^reat love for 
children, and his desire to do somethiiij^ to improve 
the schools, led him into his lile's work. He 
founded a school lor poor boys and y;irls, an orphan 
asylum, a Latin school, a teachers' seminary, and a 
free boardinu--school. At the time of his -death 
10,000 teachers had instructed in his schools and 
250,000 boys and girls and teachers had been taught 
in them. He was one of the tirst who saw how 
much the teacher needed professional training. He 
became virtually the tounder of the scientific schools 
of Germany. 

John Henry Pestalozzi. — 1746-1827, a Swiss 
educator, the founder of " object-teaching," and the 
most celebrated of educational reformers. In youth 
he was awkward and the butt of fun for his play- 
mates. His feelings were remarkably strong ; he 
was injudicious, and to-day would be considered a 
poor instructor. " He made failures, both financial 
and educational. Yet he possessed the true educa- 
tional principles which have since been verified by 
others. His principles are still at work, permeating 
and changing modern education into a realization of 
the " New Education." His chief work is " Leonard 
and Gertrude." 

Frederick Froebel. — 1 782-1852, a German edu- 



THli HISI'URY OF EDUCATION. ' 83 

cator, the founder of the Kindergarten. He got 
from Pestalozzi the idea of genuine human develop- 
ment, and had a keener insi^jht and a better disci- 
pHne with which to apply it. His great work is 
" The Education of Man." He converted everything 
that goes by the name of play into instruments lor 
his purpose, and readily translormed play into work. 
His idea has worked wonders in our system of edu- 
cation, and is L'aining ground rapidly. 

The Outlook. — Every decade makes great 
changes in the educational outlook on the iuture. 
Everywhere methods are becoming objective and ob- 
servational. leachiniT that does not seek the stand- 
point of normal or natural methods fitted to the 
pupil's experience and nature can not be successlul. 
Everywhere we are recognizing the tact that the lack 
of interes: on the part of pupils ib due very largely 
to the ignorance or neglect of the teacher in applying 
the great principles ol mind-growth to the subject 
being taught. Proper mental activity is not a phe- 
nomenon ol chance. Whatever the diversity of 
views to-day regarding the purposes ol teaching 
arises from a diversity ol vieus concerning the pur- 
poses of lite itselt. The true aim in education is 
based on the nature and purpose of life. We are 
now seeking knowledge and discipline for the sake of 
the soul itself, that its advancement may be toward a 
realization of the ideal manhood and womanhood. 



m 



Bold faced numbers refer to the page upon which answers may 

be found. 

4r. 1. Define psycliulogy 2. What are phenomena? 3. Wliat 
are csyrhical phenomena? 4. What is the soul ? (See p. 8). 5. Name 
tlie methods of study. 6. Define each 5. 7. Wliat is the classifica- 
tion oi' the powers of the soul? 8. Name the general powers. 9. 
Name the individual powers. 10. Name the intellectual powers, ll. 
Classify the presentative. 12. The refiresentative. 13. Why are the 
representatives so called? 14. Classify the thought powers. 7. 15 
Give etymology £)f psychology. 16. What is Gordy's difini-ion of psy- 
chology? 17. What is the province of psychology? 18. What are 
mental facts? 19. Why is a knowledge of psychology Uf-cessary lo a 
good e(hication ? 20 What is the strongest reason for studying it? 
21. Whv should teachers study it? 22. Why should prospective teach- 
ers ? 23. Repeat the question on p. 7. 8. 24. What is the strongest 
reason why teachers should sttidy it? 25. What synonyms of soul 
are sometime-s used? 26. Define mind. 27. Ego. 28. Non-Ego. 29. 
Spirit. 30. Give K^ewett's distinction between soul and spirit. 31 
Have dogs souls,? 32. Have they a si>irit? 33. Do dogs reason? 
34. Have they a moral consi'ience? 35. Have they personalty? 36. 
What powers are exercised by the soul? 37. Who made this classifi- 
cation? 38. When? 39. Is all the soul required to think? 40. To 
feel? 41. To will or do? 42. What is feeling? 48. Any distinction 
between feeling and gensibility ? 44. Difine sensibility. 45 What 
does it include? 9. 46. Define intellect. 47. Will. 48. Classify psy- 
chology. 49. Define empirical psychology. 50. Rational. 51. Which 
is of most value to teachers? 52. Why? 53. W^hat is the correct use 
of the terms cognition, feeling, and volition? 54. What is cognition? 
55. Volition? 56 Name the methods.of study. -57. What is said of the 
study of self? 58. What are the steps? 10. 59. Define introspection. 60. 
What is its main advantage ? 61. Its great disadvantage? 62. How 
does memory aid introspection? 63. How is a psychological principle 



QUESTIONS. 85 



deduce J? 64. Deliiie iutereutial method. 65. Do we ever use the iu- 
fertju ial iu the study of our owu miuds V 66. What advantage has 
this method over others? 11. 67. Why should you study the home 
mflueuces of the child? 68. iiow is the objective method related to 
t.ie subjective ? 69. in what three ways is ihe iulerealiul method 
used? 70. Name and define the auxiliary brunches. 12. 71. What 
IS said of the stud> of psychology from booiis? 72. What difficulty is 
thus eucou.itered by the student]:' 73. Why? 74. U hat kind of science is 
p.iyciiology y 75. Way? 76 Wliy are the s <ul and body reiaied ? 13. 
77. What is this relation? 78. What is monism V 79. Dualism? 80. 
Forms ot monism ? 81. Dedne materialism. 82. Give Bain's defiui- 
tiou of the b.jtly. 14. 83. Detine idealism. 84. Agntisiicism. 85. 
Who called the mind "a permanent possibility of sensations?" 86. 
What of Herbert 6peucer ? 87. Define dualism. 88 Etymology ot 
dualism and monism. 89. Forms of dualism. 90. Define mysticism. 
15. 91. Dualistic realism. 92. What is said of its validity ? 93 Who 
was Liebuitz? 94. Thomas Lieid ? 95. James McCosh ? 96. What is 
the intermediate factor in all sensations? 97. Wny intermediate V 16. 
98. Name the processes in every complete sensation. 99. Define exter- 
nal excitant. 100. What else called ? 101. Illustrate. 102. Give an 
original illustration. 103. Define sensorium. 104. Define motorium. 
105. Where is sensorial excitement y 106. What are the two kinds of 
sensations? 107. Define cerebro-spinal system. 108. Name the parts. 
109. Define encephalon. 110. Name its parts. HI. Describe the cere- 
brum. 112. What is the weight of the brain V 113. What is the func- 
tfjn of the cerebrum ? 17. 114. How many gray cells in the cere- 
brum ? 115. What is apperception? 116. What is percipienceV 1J7. 
What is the relation of apperception to conception V 118. Describe the 
cerebellum. 119. What of its function V 120. Locate the medulla. 
121. Define foramen magnum. 18. 122. Is respiration voluntary? 
123. What is the function of the medulla? 124. What is the relation 
of size of brain to intellectual power? 125. Nauie examples. 126. 
When is thedbrain relatively heaviest? 127. Define sensory nerves. 
128 Afi"erent nerves. 129. Efferent nerves. 130. Centripetal nerves. 
131. Centrifugal nerves. 132 Why are each so called? 133. Where 
is the spinal cord ? 134. Give weight and length. 135. What are its 
functions? 136. Of what does the sympathetic system consist? 187 
What is the function of this system ? 138. What is peculiar about the 
olfactory nerve ? 139. What is a physical excitant? 140. What is 
the excitant in sense of smell? 20. 141. What is the sensorial ex- 
citement in this case? 142. Name the nerves, ol taste. 143. Locate 



86 QUESTIONS. 



them. 144. What part of the seiisorium is engaged in smell ? 145. 
What is tlie external excitaut? 146. The sensorial excitement':' 147. 
What can you say of the modifications of this sense? 148 What of 
the sensation of sourness V 149. What of sensations of touch detected 
by the tongue 'r* 150. Describe the auditory nerve. 151. What is the 
excitant? 21 152. The sensorial excitement ? 153. V\ hat of the 
optic nerve ? 154 VVhere does it originate? 155 The excitaut? 156. 
U hat is etlier? 157. How does light affect the optic nerve? 158. 
Primarily, what knowledge does the sensation of light give us ? 159. 
2^ ame tiie auxiliaries to sight. 160 How do we judge ol distance? 
161. Of size? 162 Define tactile nerves. 163. Where do they possess 
sensibility? 22. 164. What is the excitant in touch? 165 L'he re- 
sult? 166 Name the general powers ol the soul. 167- Define gen- 
eral powers. 23. 168. What of their functions? 169. What is a 
faculty? 170. What is an intellectual power ? 171. Define conscious- 
ness 172. Give Hill's definition. 173. Ift-asou fur his answer? 174. 
What dues Hewett say .'' 175. Schuyler? 176. Putnam? 177. liaker? 
178. Do these authors agree in the main ? 179. Can you give another 
definition? ISn. What is the two-fold use of the word consciousness? 
181. Give et> mology. 182. What does this indicate? 183. VVhatalone 
are objects of consciousness? 184. Why must these phenomena be 
actual and present? 185. (Jive distinction between mediate and im- 
media:e knowledge. 186. Name the classes of objects of consciousuess 
24. 187 What is Ego? 188. To v\ hat extent are we conscious of it? 
189. What does Hewett say? 190. ^Vhat does Schuyler say? 191. 
Are wt- conscious of ihe mind's activity? 192. What are pyschical 
phenonjena? 198. Are we conscious ol the Non-Ego? 194. Are we 
conscious of a thought ? 195 Are we conscious of anything past? 
196 Of anything future? 197. Are we conscious of what we remem- 
ber? 198. In case of past objects or events of what are we conscious ? 
199 Can we be conscious of a material object, such as a half 200. 
To which faculty is consciousness most closely related? 201. By 
what is consciousness implied ? 202. Name ihe three kinds of con- 
sciousness. 203. Define natural consciousness. 204. What do you 
understand by " the three classes of psychical phenomena?" 25 
205. Define ethical consciousness. 206 Abnormal? 207. Name four 
causes of the last. 208. What is said of the degrees of consciousness? 
209 Upon what does the degree of consciousness depend? 210 Name 
the three conditions of consciousness 211 What does Baker say of 
the relation of consciousness and attention i' 212 What is involuntary 
consciousness? 213 Give an illustration of it. 214 What is said of 



QUESTIONS. 87 



unconscious mental activity? 215. VVhat is cerebration? 216. Un. 
conscious cerebration ? 26 217. Can brain activity be unaccompan- 
ied by mental activity ? 218 Can tiiere be mental activity without 
brain activity ? 218 Can there be mental activity witiiout conscious- 
ness ? 220 Give an original illustration of 217 221 Can considous- 
uess be cultivated ? 222 Give reason 223 Can involuntary acts be 
trained ? 224. Illustrate. 225 What is the second General Power ? 
226. Define attention. 227. Give etymology. 228. Explain this literal 
meaning. 229 What does Compayre say of attention ? 230 Hewett ? 
231. Steele? 232. White V 233 Day" 234 Hill? 235 In what two 
ways is the term applied ? 236 Wliat is observation ? 27. 237 De- 
tine reflection. 238. Show difference between reflection .•nil observa- 
tion 239. What two m.-ntal powers are exercised in refie' tion ? 240. 
Classify attention 241 Define volunt try attention. 242 lavoluntHry 
243 Give etymology 244. U hat are the elements of vuluntary atten- 
tion ? 245. Wlien i.s attention first exercised? 246 ^Nliat are the 
functions of attention? 247 Wliat are the causes of non voluntar. at- 
tention? 248 Give illustrations of non-voluntary attention in adults 
249. Whicli of the two must the learner possess? 250 Wtiy? 28. 
251 What are the two c asses of objects to which attention may be di- 
rected? 252. Can we attend to objects of consciousness, psychical plie- 
nomena? 253 VVhat acts of knowing depend on attention ? 254. Dis- 
cus.s the relation ot attniLion to mental activity. 255. Can we attend 
to more than one thing at a time ? 256 Can we think more than one 
thing at a time ? 257. VVhat does Hamilton say? 258 Steele? 259 
Schuyler? 260 Gordy ? 261. Sully? 262 Recite the five general 
laws of attention. 29 263 Do these laws apply to voluntary or non- 
voluntary attention ? 264. Give Weber's law. 265 Illustrate the 
meaning of this law. 266. Name the seven conditions unfavorable to 
attention. 267. To which kind of attention do they apply ? 268 By 
which kind of attention do we gain the most knowledge ? 269 Why ? 
270. Name six motives proper to appeal to in order to secure attention 
271 Name White's " Royal Seven " incentives 30 272 Which of 
these do you think the best incentive ? 273. Does the nature or dis- 
position of the child have anything to do with the selection oi incen- 
tives? 274. Why? 275. Name other incentives net named here. 276. 
Name other causes of inattention. 277. What is said of the growth of 
this power in childhood? 278. How are the stimuli of attention pre- 
sented in childhood? 279. What does this teach us? 280. Which 
senses reach the attention most effectively in childhood ? 281. What 
does this teach us? 282. Can attention be cultivated? 283. Why? 



QUESTIONS. 



284 HowV 285 Describe some original metliocl by vvhicli tlie atten- 
tion may be cultivated. 286. What is said o^ geni'isV 287 ^Vtiat 
sliouid the teacher do to secure the attention of his pupils y 288 Uovv 
may he liold this atLentiouV 289. Wliat qualiticati-uis oi the teacher 
aie neces.>jary that lie may secure and hold the attention ? 290 Give 
etymologj' of conception. 291. U' hat does this mean >" 292. Make an 
original definition Irom the etymology. 293. What is said oi the vari- 
ous uses of the term ? 31. 294. Define conception 295. VVhat are 
the three processes of conception y 296 Into wliat five may these be 
divided? 297 V> hich authoi's definition of cui.ception is the clearest 
to you? 298 Repeat Schuyler's definition 299 Define presentation 300 
Comparison. i^These two constitute analysis). 301 Abstraction. 302. 
Etymology of abstraction. 303. (ieneralization 8ii4 Its etymology. 
305 What is the fifth step? 32. 306 Define denomination. 307. 
Wuat does it embrace y 308. Define each. 309. Show relaiion oi con- 
ception to classification 310 Is conception a faculty y 311. vVhyV 312. 
What does the term embrace? 313. Define concept 314 Name the 
classes. 315. Define simple conceits 316 General concepts; 317 
What is the difference between a concejit and an image ? 318. Be- 
tween concept and idea? 319 Beivveen comept and percept? (See 
percept). 320. See No. 115. 33 321. What are the individual con- 
cepts ? 322 Logical? 323. Explain the difference between the two 
classes. 324 Can concepcion b.- cultivated? 325 Why? 326 How? 
327. How does sense-perception aid conception ? 328. What of the re- 
lation of conception to education ? 329. What steps of conception are 
necessary to scientific knowledge? 330 How does linguistic study aid 
conception? 331. What does it do for the orderof study ? 34, 332 What 
are the essential processess in mind growth? 333 How are abstract 
ideas developed? 334. What is the crowning notion of science? 335. 
Name the psyhical powers. 35. 336. Define intellect. 337. Give ety- 
mology 338. What does its literal meaning indicate ? 339. VVhat are 
the functions of the intellect? 340. Define knowledge 341 Name 
the three objects of knowledge. 342. Define the subjective. 343. 
Objective. 344 On what three bases is knowledge classified ? 345. 
Classify as to manner in which known. 346. Define s(;ientlfic. 347. 
Unscientific, 348. As to its stage 349. Define each 36 349 As to 
intellectual powers used. 350 Define presentative knowledge. 351. 
Kepresentative. 352. Elaborative. 353. Constitutive 354. Name the 
classes of intellectual powers. 355. Classify the presentative 356. De- 
fine self-consciousness. 357. Consciousness 356 To what is the for- 
mer limited ? 359. Name its forms. 360. Define spontaneous self- 



QUESTIONS. 89 

cousckusness 37. 361 Reflective. 362 Name its nuruial luru.s. 
363. Its abnormal forms. 364. What is the secoud preseutative 
power? 365. Define it. 366 Its etymology. 367. Wliat does this im 
ply V 368. Name the three uses of tiie term 36^. Give an original il- 
lustration of ea-li 370. How many physical conditions of seuse-pei- 
ception ? 371. Name them. 372. Ueflue each. 373. Give anotlier 
term for each. 374 What may they be called? 375 2same the psy- 
chical elements ot sense perception 38. 376. Uetiue perception 
proper 377. iSens-tiou. 378. Explain Hewitt's detiuition of st usa- 
tiou. 379 Name the classes of sense-perceptions 38U Define original 
perception 381. Acquired 382. Why so called V 383. Give an 
original illustration of the latter. 384. C'lassity acquirtU perce.tKns 
385- Which are of most value ? 386. \Viiy ? 387. Give an original ex- 
ample of each class. 39. 388. Of what do we judge by sight? 389. 
W hat is the "mechanical conscience"? 390. Classify the st- rises. 
391. Define each. 392. V\ hy is each so called ? 393. W hy is the b« use 
of sight called etheric ' 394. Define percept. 395 ilow is any ob- 
ject of Knowledge known to us ? 396. When do we have a percept ? 
397. iShow diflTereuce between percept and com ept. 398. What is a 
sense-percept V 399. Difference between percept and image ? 400 
Define sense-concept. 401 Can percepts of smell be revived into 
images? 40. 402. What others can not? 403. Discuss the relation 
of perception to education. 404. What are the three sources of all onr 
knowledge? 405. Which one furnishes us nearly all our knowledge? 
406 What is the discriminative power? 407. What do the laws oi 
perception teach us ? 408. What is said of concrete facts? 409. Ob- 
ject lessons ? 410. Exercise ? 411. What of the child's perceptive fac- 
ulty ? 412 What is Kindergartenism ? 413. )iy whom founded ? 414. 
What did Pestalozzi do ? 412. Etymology of Kindergarten. 41. 416. 
What of its value? 417. Define intuition. 418. Which definition gives 
you the clearer idea? 419. What of its relation? 420. What does it 
embrace? 421. Define intuitive ideas. 422. Classify them. 423. Of 
which one is there a doubt in some minds? 424. Do you doubt it? 
425. Illustrate the idea of personal identity. 42. 426^. The nature of 
such ideas. 427. Have idiots any iatuition? 428. Have insane per- 
sons? 429. Define intuitive truths. 430. iSynonyms?." 431. Name the 
tests. 432. Define each. 438. Can you doubt an intuitive truth? 434. 
Can you disbelieve one? 435. Reason? 436. Name three intutive 
truths not named here. 43. 437. Name the representative powers of 
the intellect. 438. Define representative powers. 439. Illustrate 440. 
W^hat is phantasy? 441. What is said of images thus reproduced? 



90 QUESTIONS. 



442. Give etymology of the word. 443 When is phantasy exercised? 
444. Name its forms. 445. The simplest form. 446. Define som- 
nambulism. 447. Hypnotism. 448. Distinguish between phantasy 
and memory. 449. What are the causes of its phenomena? 44. 450. 
Name the oharacteristics of ideas thus reproduced. 451. Name the 
modes of reproductfon in phaiitasy. 452. Illustrate each. 453. Define 
imagination. 454. Name its activities. 455. How is the first exer- 
cised? 456. The second? 457. The third V 458. What iire the limits 
of imagination? 459. Distinguish between phantasy and imagination ? 
460. Quote Baker on this subject. 45. 461. The forms of imagination. 
462. Define scientific. 463. Name its subdivisions. 464. Define artis- 
tic imagination, 465. Name its forms. 466. Define ethical. 467. How 
is imagination related to education? 468. Illustrate the use of imagin- 
ation in reading. 469. In studying science. 470- In exercising the 
senses. 471. Name five uses in rhetorical conijxjsition. 472. Name a 
Use not mentioned in this bo jk 46 473. Name the uses enumerated 
by Hewett. 474. How can its use give enjoyment V 475. Explain the 
sixth use. 476. How can it idd the teacher in the school-r )om ? 477. 
Memorize the four gineral laws of imagination. 478. What is the 
characteristic of undisciplined minds? 479. The aim of the educator? 
480. Name four means of training the imagination. 481. Explain the 
first. 47. 487. What does the second one mean? 483. Name an ex- 
ample of imaginative literature. 484. What profit to pupils in con- 
structing questions and problems? 485. Name the phases of imagina- 
tion. 486. Describe the modifying phase. 487. The constructive. 488. 
The creative. 489. Which is the school phase? 490. Why? 491. 
Which is used by the novelist? 492. Name the third representative 
power. 493. Define memory. 494. Discuss the several definitions 
48. 495. Name the acts of memory. 496. Why in this ordtr? 497. 
Define retention. 498. Illustrate its importance 499. Define n-pro- 
duction. 500. Why important? 501. Define recgonition; 502. Dis- 
tinguish between perfect and imperfect memory. 49 Define volun- 
tary recollection 504. How is the power to recollect strengthened? 
505. Define involuntary recollection. 506. Give an illustration of the 
latter. 507 Enumerate the conditions favorable to cultivating the 
memory. 508. How does repetition affect retention ? 509. Define am- 
nesia. 510. Its causes. 511. Name the degrees of forgetfulness. 512 
What may cause momentary forgetfulness ? 50. 513 Define laws of 
association. 514 Classify them. 515. Name the pritnary laws 516. 
What else called? 517. Why? 518 Define the Law of Similarity 
519 Illustrate it 520. Define the Law of Contrast. 521. Illustrate it. 



QUESTIONS. , . 91 



522. What of contiguity of time ? 523. Of place ? 524. What does con- 
tiguity mean ? 525 Define secondary laws of association. 526. What 
else called? 527. Why? 51. 528. What is said of the relation of 
cause and effect ? 529. Explain the second law. 530. What of me- 
chanical repetition ? 531 Give the general rule for cultivating the 
memory 532 What of skillful questioning? 533 What is said of 
memory of ideas? 534 Why? 535 Explain the relation ut interest, 
attention, and memory. 52. 536. Define mnemonics. 537 By whom 
introduced y 538 Nami^ a mnemonic device. 539. Define thought 
powers. 540. Classify them. 541. What of concepti'iuV 542. Define 
judgment. 543. Parts of a judgment. 544. Parts of a proposition. 545. 
How is a judgment obtained V 53. 546 How do v\e judge? 547. 
What does judgment imply? 548 How old is a child when it is first 
able to judge? 549 To reason? 550 Classify judgments. 551 De 
fine primitive judgment. 552. Derivative judgment. 523 AflSrma- 
tive. 554. Negative 555 Singular. 556 Universal. ' 54 557. Cate- 
gorical. 558 Conditional 559 How far can we encourage indepen- 
dent judgment in the learner? 560 What is said of the cultivation of 
the judgment? 561, Define reason 55. 562 The two forms of rea- 
soning 563 The two methods of reasoning. 564 Define implicit 
reasoning 565 Explicit 586 Define induction. 567. May the syllo- 
gism be used in induction? 568. What is th ' basis of all induction? 
56. 569. Name the three processes of induction. 571. Name tlie 
forms. 572. Define enthymeme 573. Illustrate ii. 574 Define syllo- 
gism 575 Name the parts of a syll 'gism. 576 Define each 57. 577. 
Write an original syllogism. 578 Name the terms of a syllogism 579 
Explain use of each. 580. How is inductive reasoning best developed? 
581 Same ot' deductive reasoning 582 Define sensibility 583. 
What does include ? 584 Define sensibilities 585 Classify feelings 
586. Dt^fine eac;h class 58. 587. Name the forms of psychical feeling 
588 Define emotions 589 The two general classes 01 emotions 590. 
Name the four forms of rational emotions. 591 Define each class 
592 Classifylegoistic emotions. 593 Altruistic. 594. Esthetic. 595 
Ethical. 59. 5^6 Name second class of psychical feelings 597. 
Define affections 598. Classify the affections. 599 What are domes- 
tic affections ? 600 The two classes ? 601 What is patriotism ? 602 
Philanthropy?. 603. Define defensive affections. 604. Define resent- 
ment. 605. Illustrate 606 Define indignation. 607. Illustrate 608 
What is the third class of affections? 60 609 Define maleficent af- 
fections. 610. What noti<-e should teachers take of the study of affec- 
tions ? 611. Define desires 612. Classify them. 613. Define will 



92 QUESTIONS. 

614 DefiiiH! voliti(jii. 615 The two forms of its activity 61 616 How 
many steps in vviliingy 617. Name and describe them 618 VVliat is 
the basis of moral training? 619. Describe tiie methods. 63 61^0. De- 
tine pedagogy. 621 Paideutics 622. Basis «l pedagogy ? 623 Means 
of education ? 624. Define physical education. 625 Moral education. 
626. Intellectual education. 627 What is original knowledge ■;' 64 
628. Recorded i^uowledge? 629 Tuitionary ? 630 Classify power in 
education. 631. Classify skill. 632. What .ire the two snlijVctive con- 
ditions'upon which these principles miL-it be applied? 633. Enumerate 
the qualifications of the teacher. 634. What is said of a knowledge of 
methods y 635. VVhy? 636. Give another reason. 637. Upon what 
must discipline be based? 638. What of hf-art power? 639. Of self- 
control y 640. Of motives ? 641. Of the tebcher's moral character y 642. 
Of his respect for the profession? 643. Whyy 644. What must be 
the teacher's authority y 645. From whom does he derive his author- 
ity y 66. 646. Classify the rights of i-upils. 647. The duties. 648. 
Tiieir offenses. 649. How would you correct offenses of pupils against 
themselves y 650. Howr correct the offenses of idleness y 651. Of bad 
manners? 652. In disrespectful disobedience y 653. In accusing 
school-mates falsely y 654. Do you allow y ur pupils to report on each 
othery 655. Give reason. 656. How do you correct pupils for the de- 
struction of prot>ertyy 657. For abusing property y 658. What arn 
the pupils' offenses against th-e community y 659. How do you correct 
these y 660. How do j'ou detect tiie use of profane language on the 
school-grounds y 661. Vulgar conduct? 662. Can you always prevent 
ity 663. What are the pupil's rewards y 664. How can they be used 
as incentives ? 665. Explain ijifference between approbation and com- 
mendation? 666. What do you think of the value of prizes as an in- 
centive ? 667. What does age of pupil have to do with the incentive y 
668. What does the stage of advancement have to do with it ? 67. 669. 
Classify punishments. 670. Why are punishments necessary i* 671. 
What is said of privileges y 672. Of sarcasm y 673. When would j'ou 
impose additional duties? 674. What of the acknowledgement of of- 
fenses y 675. When should it be public y 676. When private? 677. 
When would it do harm rather than trood ? 678. ilo\fi is a tea-lier 
to know what method to pursue? 679. What is said of corporal duh- 
ishment ? 680. Whv is there less of it now than fornierlyy 681. 
Name the objective conditions of school government. 682 What 
should be the qualities of the schoolroom? 683. What is said of 
light in the school room? 684. Why thus? 685. In rejfard to deskf<, 
what is meant by "sanitary principles? ' 686. Why should desks be 



QUESTIONS. 9; 



single? 687. What is s^iid of neatness? 68.688 Describe tlie best 
methxil of heatii^if. 689. Of ventilatins:. 690. Name the nectssary 
apparatus of a scliool 691 What is the necessity of a globe ? 692 
Wnat is saiii of a good iibiary V 693 Do many schools have iilira- 
rif'sV 694. Wiiost- work is it to see that the school is supplied with a 
library? 695. II<'W can this lie done? 696 VViiy is an educational 
seiitiinHiit an objnctive condition of sclibol nianagfemeiit ? 697. How 
can this sentiment lie crf^ated .' 698 Repeat Joseph Pavue's Univ^-r- 
sal Princjtiles. 699. What dops the second one teach us? 69. 700 
Explain the thirl 701 RrfpeitDr Wliite's Principles. 702. What 
of the import iiici-' of tUn s^'coti'l ? 703. The value of tlin fourth ? 704. 
Thelifth? 705. What does the sixth mean ? 71 706. Deline meth- 
odology. 707. Whit of its extent y 708. IsTame some of the princi- 
ples laid down. 709. Explain •* proceed from Iht- known to the un- 
known. " 710. NN'hat is said of sense-percnption ? 711. What is th»^ 
true secret in the acquisition of knowledge ? 72. 712. What is said 
of analysis and synthesis? 713. Why are these so important? 714. 
Classify the objects of st luiy. 715. What does study do for discipline ? 
716. For the acquisition of knowledge? 717. For professional ad- 
vancement? 718 Classify incentives to study. 719. What of the 
benevolent desire ? 720. The selflsli desire ? 721. Name some of the 
involuntary incentives 722. When are these of most value? 73. 723. 
What is said of the- manner of study ? 724. Enumerate the objects 
of a recitation. 725 Which do you think the most important ? 726. 
Why? 727. Name an object not here mentioiiKl. 728. Describe 
the modes of <'onducting recitations. 729. Why must there be differ- 
ent modes? 74. 730 What do you think of the titth ? 731. Explain 
the eighth. 75. 732 Detine pe.iagogy. 733. Didactics. 734 Is 
tnaching a profession? 735 Repeat the detinition of education. 
76 736. What is the historv of c.lucation ? 737. What <»f its givat 
iinportancf^V 738. What Is said of ChinaV 739. Of KongV 740. Of 
.Japan? 741 Of ZoroastprV 77. 742. What is said of the MagiV 
743. What of Egypt's civilization " 744 What <1ohs Homer sa.\ ? 745 
What of Dorian culture? 746 Review the work of Pythagoras. 747. 
Of Lvcurgiis. 748 Ot Solon 78. 749 What important restriction 
was placed ii[)on ptrentsy 750 When did .Socrates livn? 751 Wln-re 
and how did he teach ? 752 Expliin the "Soi-ratir- Method." 753 
May teachers use it snciessfnilv ? 754. Name two of his pupils 755. 
What did each do? 756. Describe PJMto's philosophy 757. Whendid 
Aristotle live? 758 Whit did he do? 79 759 Wh-t was his phil- 
osophy cilled ? 760. What is said of education at Rome? 761. The 



94 QUESTIONS. 



(lawn of the Christian Era? 762. What did the new rpligion teach ? 
763. What of education during the Midlle Ages? 80 764 What, 
was the Reformation ? 765 Who instituted it? 766. What of his 
influence? 767 What did Melancthon doV 768 John Sturm':* 769. 
Of what is he the father ? 80 770. Describe Lord Bacon's career 
771. His influence in education. 772. What is his great principle? 
773. Describe the work of Comenius. 774. Of Joiui Lock. 775. 
What of Rosseau. 776. His chief maxim ? 777. Is it true? 778. His 
greatest work ? 82. 779. What is said of it ? 780 Outline the work 
and influence of Herman Francke. 781. Who founded -'object-teach- 
ing ? " 782. What of its importance ? 783. What was his chief work ? 
83. 784. Who founded the Kindergarten ? 785. What is said of him ? 
786. Describe the outlook for the teaching profession to-day. 787. 
Are we making substantial progress as a profession ? 



^ 



liiEX, 



Acquisiition of knowledge, .71 

Abstr ct ideas developed, 34 

Abstraction 31 

Att'ectioiis def and classified, :j9 

Agnosticism, 14 

Amiiesia, 49 

Anthropology, U 

Apparatus, value of 68 

Association, : aws of, 50 

Aristotle 78 

Attention def , 26; elements of, 27; 
luwsof, 28; growtii of, 29 

Bacon, L^rd, 81 

Bain, Alexander, 13 

Berkeley, George, 14 

Biology, 11 

Biography, 11 

Brain and inte lect, 18 

Cerebrum, functions of, 16 

Cerebellum, functions of, 17 

China and Japan, 76 

Christian Era 79 

Cicero, 79 

Concepfe. ..^ 32 

Conception def , 30 ; processes, 31 ; 
Clasisificatlon, 32 ; its cultivation, 

33 

Comparison, 31, 50 

CoQsciousness def., 23 ; objects of. 23 ; 
kinds, 24; degrees, 25; conditions, 

28 ; culiivation, 26 

Co ;trast, law of, 50 

Contiguity, law of, 50 

Comenius, 8: 

Deduction, 56 

Denomination, 31 

Desires classified, 60 

Didactics, 75 

Discriminative power, 40 

Dualistic Kealisra, 15 

Education, def., 75; kinds of, 63; his- 
tory of, 75 

Educational Sentiment, 67 

Ego defined, 8 

Egypt, :... 77 

Emotions def , 58: classified 58 

Encephalon, 16 

Enthymeme, 56 

External excitant, 16 

Excitant of the senses, 19-22 



Faculty defined 23 

Feelings def. and classified, 57 

Forgetfuluess, causes of, 49 

Francke, Herman, 8^ 

Frosbel, Frederick i: -82 

Generalization, 31 

General Powers, 22 

Greece, 77 

Hamilton, Sir William, 8 

History, 12 

History of education, 75 ; def .... 76 

Idealism and idealists, 13, 14 

Imagination, activities, 44 ; limits, 44 ; 

its training, 46 ; phases, 47 

Introspection, 10 ; related to infer- 
ence, 11 ; how used, 11 

Inferential method, 10 

Intellect def., 34; functions, ....35 

Intellectual powers,...- 36 

Image and percept, 39 

Intuition, 41 ; intuitive ideas and 

truths, 41, 42 

Induction, def. 5 ; basis of, 55 

Intellectual education 63 

Instruction, Universal i rinciples....71 
Incentives to study, 71 

.ludgment, 52-54 

Kindergartenism. 40-82 

Knowledge, def., 35 ; classified, 23, 3- ; 
objects of, 35 : desire for, 60 

Liebnitz, G. W., 15 

Locke, John, 81 

Luther, Martin, 80 

Lycurgus, 77 

Mat;^rialism, , 13 

Methods of study, 9 

Melancthon, 80 

Medulla, functions of, 17 

Memory, def , 47 ; acti- of, 48 ; varitits 
of, 48 ; improving, 49, 51 ; distinc- 
tion between phanta-y and mem- 
ory, 43 

Methodology, 71 

McCosh, James, 15 

Mill, John Stewart, 14 

Middle Ages, 79 

Monism, 1.^ 

Moral training <il 



96 



INDliX. 



Moral Education, 63 

Nerves, sensory and motor, IS 

■>> ervoiis system, 15 

Non-Ego 24 

Observation, 

Objective sJethod li) 

Object Teaching 82 

Objects of study, 71 

Objects of recitation, 7i 

Outlook, The S3 

Paidentics 63 

Parrot lecitations, 33 

Pedagogy, def.,63; basis of, 63 

Peisia, 76 

Pestalozzi, 40, 82 

Percepts, -;9 

Perception and education, 40 

Physical education 6< 

Phantasy, 43 

Plato, doctrine of, 78 

Presentation, 31 

Premises of syllogism, 56 

Psychology, def., 7 ; why study, 7 ; 
classified, 9 ; studied from books. 

12 ; inductive, 12 

Psychical excitement, 16 

Power, desire for, an incentive, 60 

Powers, presentative, 36 ; representa- 
tive, 43 ; and thoughT, 52 

Pupils, their rights, 66; duties 66; 
ofTenses, 65; rewards, 66 ; punish- 
ment, 67 

Pythagoras, 77 



Qualifications of teachers,. 



.64 



Quesiions, 84 

l{ecogniti">n, 48 

lieproductioii, 4« 

tieieiitioii 8,49 

lieason 54-5/ 

KecU.iitions. objects <jf, 72 ; how c<>n- 

ilucied 72 

K>forraatii.»ii SO 

Rosseau, 81 

^en.^ibility, 8, 57 

Soul, .....8, 12, ;^2 

Wpirit, 8 

Weiisaiion, 18 ; sensations, i6 ; senses, 
(•la.-sitied, 39; in lelation lo ps\- 

chology, 19 

Self-consciousness, 36 

Senseperc. piion, 37-38 

Kimiiaiity, law of, oO 

Syllogism, 56 

Study, methods and h anner, 71 

Socratic Metliod, 73, 78 

Solon, 77 

Sturm, 80 

Teacher, his qualifications, 64 

Teaching, a prulession, 75 

Thought powers 52 

Universal Principles, 67,68 

Wiil,def.. «0; activity of, 60 

Willing, steps in 61 

Zoroaster, 76 



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